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. 2021 Jan 11;13(2):231. doi: 10.3390/polym13020231

Table 4.

Illustration of the effect of nanofibrillated cellulose on the biopolymer matrix.

Source of Nanofabrillated Cellulose Biopolymer The Effect of the Reinforcement Ref.
Kenaf pulp Polylactic acid
  • -

    The tensile properties of nanocomposites indicated that strength and modulus were improved with increasing NFC contents.

 [239]
Banana waste Polylactic acid
  • -

    The incorporation of 20 wt% of glycerol triacetate and 1 wt% of nanocellulose doubled the degree of crystallinity.

  • -

    Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) exhibited a 30 to 50% reduction in storage modulus (stiffness) when compared to neat PLA.

 [240]
Nata-de-coco Polylactic acid
  • -

    The tensile modulus of the laminated nanocellulose composites was found increasing (from 12.5–13.5 GPa), insensitive to the number of sheets of nanocellulose in the composites.

  • -

    Tensile strength of the laminated nanocellulose composites decreased by 21% (from 121 MPa to 95 MPa) when the number of reinforcing nanocellulose sheets increased from 1 to 12 sheets.

 [241]
Linter pulp Polylactic acid
  • -

    The impact strength, tensile strength, and Young’s modulus of nanocomposites (PLA/CNF5/PLAgMA5) increased by 131%, 138%, and 40%, respectively, compared to neat PLA, with increasing of nanocellulose.

 [242]
Kenaf Polylactic acid
  • -

    The strength and tensile modulus increased from 58 MPa to 71 MPa, and from 2.9 GPa to 3.6 GPa, respectively, for nanocomposites with loading of 5 wt% NFC.

  • -

    The storage modulus of the nanocomposites increased compared to neat PLA.

  • -

    The addition of NFC shifted the tan delta peak towards higher temperatures.

  • -

    The tan delta peak of the PLA shifted from 70 °C to 76 °C for composites with 5 wt% CNF.

 [243]
Carrot pomace Polylactic acid
  • -

    The incorporation of nanocellulose increased hydrophilicity.

  • -

    The transmission rates of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen increased after incorporating nanocellulose into PLA.

 [243]
Bleached birch Kraft pulp Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
  • -

    The reinforcement of nanocellulose with polymers improved mechanical properties, water contact resistance, and higher barrier performance against water vapor compared to the neat nanopapers.

 [244]
Ethyl cellulose Poly(ethylene glycol)dimethacrylate
  • -

    Improved the compressive strength of nanocomposites.

 [245]
Bleached pulp board Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)
  • -

    The light transmittance, tensile strength, and elongation at break were reduced.

  • -

    The crystallinity, thermal properties, and Young’s modulus were increased.

 [222]
Bleached Kraft eucalyptus fibers poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate, PHBV)
  • -

    Incorporation of nanocellulose increased tensile modulus, thermal degradation, and storage modulus.

  • -

    Nanocellulose promotes the early onset of crystallization.

  • -

    Inhibit foaming.

  • -

    Decreased the solubility of CO2 and increased desorption diffusivity.

 [246]
Regenerated cellulose poly(3 hydroxybutyrate) (PHB)
  • -

    Increased loading of regenerated cellulose decreased the tensile strength and elongation at break.

 [247]
Nanofibrillated cellulose Polybutylene succinate (PBS)
  • -

    Incorporation of nanocellulose has drastically increased the crystallinity of nanocomposites, thus acting as nucleating agents.

  • -

    Form flexible nanocomposite films.

  • -

    Improve the mechanical properties of nanocomposite films.

 [246]
Wood cellulose pulps Chitosan
  • -

    The mechanical properties and thermal stability of chitosan nanocomposite foams increased.

  • -

    The chitosan nanocomposite foams displayed a highly efficient water/oil separation capacity even at 90 °C.

  • -

    Goof biocompatibility with L929 mouse fibroblasts.

 [248]
Bleached pine sulfite dissolving pulp Chitosan
  • -

    The incorporation of NFC improved the mechanical properties of composites of chitosan hydrogel matrices.

 [249]
Agave tequilana Weber Corn starch
  • -

    Drastic improvement in term of tensile, flexural, and impact performance.

 [250]
Bamboo helocellulose Thermoplastic starch
  • -

    Bamboo NFC filler well-dispersed in TPS matrix which contributed high in tensile properties.

  • -

    Lesser in water uptake of bionanocomposite.

 [251]
Cassava residue cellulose Cassava starch
  • -

    Improved the tensile strength, hydrophobicity, and water vapor transmission coefficient of the bionanocomposite films by 1034%, 129.4%, and 35.95%, respectively.

  • -

    Improved dispersibility with those fibrils that were detached from each other.

 [252]
Eucalyptus Waxy corn starch
  • -

    The moisture content, water solubility, and water vapor permeability were significantly reduced by the presence of NFC filler for both regular and waxy starch films.

  • -

    Thermal and tensile properties also increased at only 1% of suspension.

 [253]
Pineapple leaf Thermoplastic potato starch
  • -

    Polymer chain confinement around NFC filler had excellent dispersion and superior interaction between matrix and NFC filler.

  • -

    Barrier properties were enhanced.

 [254]
Softwood alpha cellulose pulp Cationic starch
  • -

    Improved the tensile and burst strengths of the paper composites.

  • -

    Contributed to enhancement of retention and drainage of pulp paper due to interaction between fillers and polymers.

  • -

    Improved brightness of paper.

 [255]
Softwood cellulose pulp Modified starch
  • -

    The implementation of acetyl oxides starch with TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibre (TNFC) filler resulted in less swelling inside water and highest wet tensile behaviors.

 [256]
Kenaf fibers Maize starch
  • -

    Addition of nanofibrillated cellulose to the starch enhanced the mechanical properties (in terms of tensile strength and Young’s modulus) and the thermal stability of the nanocomposites.

  • -

    Reduced moisture absorption.

  • -

    Decreased water sensitivity.

 [257,258]
Bamboo nanofibers Cassava starch
  • -

    The nanofibrillated cellulose increased tensile strength of 50% of starch films, while the elongation at break showed similar increase (66%) at concentration of 1.0 g/100 g of nanofibrillated cellulose.

  • -

    Improvement in the structure of the composite.

 [259]
Rice straw Potato starch
  • -

    The yield strength and Young’s modulus of the nanocomposite enhanced after adding the nanofibrillated cellulose to the starch.

  • -

    The glass transition temperature increased.

  • -

    The humidity absorption resistance of films was significantly enhanced by using 10 wt% cellulose nanofibers.

  • -

    The transparency of the nanocomposites was reduced compared to the pure starch composite.

 [260]
Sugar palm Sugar palm starch
  • -

    Improved water absorption and water solubility properties of the nanocomposite films by 18.84% and 39.38%, respectively.

  • -

    Good compatibility between the nanofibrillated cellulose and the sugar palm fiber, the composition created intermolecular hydrogen bonds between them.

 [261,262,263,264]