Table 1.

Summary of recent strategies using nanocarriers to resolve the limitations of practical photodynamic therapy (PDT) application.

Types of Nanomaterials	Particular Features	Functions	Reference
Au clusters	Two-photon absorption	Improving light penetration	[22,31,32]
ZnTPyP@TiO2 nanocomposites	Two-photon absorption	Improving light penetration	[33]
CaWO4 NPs, SrAl2O4:Eu2+ NPs and Cu NPs	X-ray-triggered persistent luminescence	Overcoming light penetration	[48,49,50]
ZnGa2O4:Cr	Persistent luminescence	Internal light in tumor site	[41,42,43,44]
Luciferase-exposed PLGA NPs	Bioluminescence	Internal light in tumor site	[40]
SPION	MR imaging and magnetic targeting	Imaging-guided PDT	[117,118,119,120,121]
Holmium(III)/iridium(III) bimetallic complex NPs	US imaging	Imaging-guided PDT	[128]
Zn-porphyrin-based nanoassemblies	NO release	NO-involved sensitized PDT	[155]
CORM-loaded FADP nanocarriers	CO release	Killing bacteria and ablation of biofilms	[152]
GOx-modified HMSNs	Decomposition of glucose	Starvation therapy	[148,149]
N-doped carbon-silica nanocomposites	Immunoadjuvant properties	Enhancing immunogenicity	[143]
TF-exposed RBC membrane-coated PLGA NPs	Targeting to TF receptor-overexpressed cancer cells	Enhancing PS concentration	[116]
Gemini iridium(III) complex-based nanovesicles	Mitochondria targeting	Enhancing PSs concentration	[104]
PpIX-conjugated peptide NPs	Plasma membrane targeting	Enhancing PSs concentration	[98]
Fe3O4@m-MnO2 NPs	Oxygen modulation and magnetic targeting	Hypoxia relief in TME	[83]
Carbon nitride (C3N4)	Water-splitting	Hypoxia relief in TME	[87]
V2O5 NPs	Peroxidase-like activity	Hypoxia relief in TME	[80]
pH-sensitive PFC-modified nanoparticles	Loading oxygen	Hypoxia relief in TME	[69]