Table 2.
Study characteristics.
| Year, Study Country (State) |
Design | Time Frame | Subjects (N) | Males (%) | Type of Healthcare Professional (%) |
Type of Substance Use (%) |
Source of Referral (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1982, Herrington et al. [20] US (Wisconsin) |
retrospective review | 1979–1982 | 40 | 95 | general practitioner (28); anesthesiologist (13); psychiatrist (10); internal medicine (8); dentist (8); obstetrics-gynecology (8); surgeon (5); other (20) | alcohol (58); narcotics (38); other (5) | coworker (63); family member (18); legal system (13); self-referral (8) |
| 1984, Washton et al. [21] US (New York; New Jersey) |
retrospective review | 1979–1981 | 15 | 100 | physician (100) | opioids (100) | - |
| 1985, Crowley [22] US (Colorado) |
prospective descriptive | - | 15 | 100 | physician (60); dentist (33); veterinarian (7) | - | licensing board (40); hospital or coworkers (33); family member (7); treatment provider (7); self-referral (13) |
| 1987, Shore [23] US (Oregon) |
retrospective review | 1977–1985 | 25 | - | physician (100) | - | - |
| 1991, Pelton & Ikeda [24] US (California) |
retrospective review | 1980–1990 | 51 | - | anesthesiologist (100) | opioids (49) | - |
| 1992, Gallegos et al. [25] US (Georgia) |
retrospective review | 1982–1992 | 100 | 92 | family and general practitioner (23); surgeon (22); anesthesiologist (17); psychiatrist (15); internal medicine (12); emergency medicine (4); pediatrician (3); radiologist (1); dermatologist (1); occupational medicine (1); rehabilitation medicine (1) | alcohol (71); cocaine (21); meperidine hydrochloride (19); diazepam (18); marijuana (17); percodan (12); fentanyl citrate (11); codeine sulfate (9); amphetamine (7) | - |
| 1994, Roy [26] US (Louisiana) |
retrospective review | >1989 | 37 | 89 | physician (68); dentist (16); pharmacist (5); veterinarian (3); other (8) | prescription drug (43); alcohol (27); polysubstance (16); cocaine (14) | - |
| 1996, Nelson et al. (1) [27] US (Oregon) |
retrospective review | 1990–1992 | 56 | 91 | surgery (59); internal medicine (32); family practitioner (21); emergency medicine (7); anesthesiology (6); pathology (4); pediatrician (4); obstetrics-gynecology (3); psychiatry (2); neurology (2); dermatology (1); radiology (1); unknown (1) | alcohol (75); opioids and cocaine (21); amphetamines and sedatives (4) | self-referral (15); immediate contact (39); third party (46) |
| 1996, Nelson et al. (2) [27] US (Oregon) |
retrospective review | 1990–1992 | 41 | 90 | alcohol (87); opioids and cocaine (8); amphetamines and sedatives (5) | self-referral (7); immediate contact (15); third party (73); unknown (5) | |
| 1997, Roth et al. [28] US (Connecticut) |
retrospective review | - | 20 | 15 | nurse (85); anesthesiology nurse (10); pharmacist (5) | opioids (100); alcohol (85); cocaine (40); benzodiazepines (30) |
licensing board (90); self-referral (10) |
| 1999, Paris & Canavan (1) [29] US (New Jersey) |
retrospective review | 1982–1994 | 32 | - | anesthesiologist (59); anesthesiology residents (41) | opioids (78) | - |
| 1999, Paris & Canavan (2) [29] US (New Jersey) |
retrospective review | 1982–1994 | 36 | - | physician (75); resident (25) | opioids (42) | - |
| 2004, Warhaft [30] Australia |
retrospective review | 2001–2004 | 58 | 86 | general practitioner (34); anesthesiologist (10); surgeon (7); pathologist (5); radiologist (5); physician (3); obstetrics-gynecology (2); occupational medicine (2); pediatrician (2); psychiatry (2); other (28) | alcohol (36); pethidine (31); heroin (12); codeine (5); benzodiazepines (5); amphetamines (3); cocaine (3); nitrous oxide (2); ketamine (2) | - |
| 2005, Domino et al. [31] US (Washington) |
retrospective cohort | 1991–2001 | 292 | 84 | physician (79); physician assistant (11); veterinarian (5); osteopath (2); dentist/dental surgeon (1); podiatrist/pharmacist (1) | alcohol (56); opioids (32); cocaine (3); benzodiazepines (2); other (7) | - |
| 2005, Ganley et al. (1) [32] US (North Carolina) |
retrospective review | 1991–2001 | 233 | 87 | physician (100) | alcohol (50); opioids (25); polysubstance (16); other (8) | licensing board; hospital; coworker; family member; self-referral |
| 2005, Ganley et al. (2) [32] US (North Carolina) |
retrospective review | 1991–2001 | 34 | 74 | physician assistant (100) | alcohol (44); opioids (35); polysubstance (6); other (15) |
licensing board; hospital; coworker; family member; self-referral |
| 2006, Clark et al. [33] US (Idaho) |
retrospective review | 1985–2000 | 147 | 18 | registered nurse (57); licensed practical nurse (38); advanced practice registered nurse (3) | alcohol (72); legal oral opioids (45); inhalants (8); stimulants (23); marijuana (21); legal injected narcotics (31); illegal injected opioids (33); prescription drugs (20) | employer (50); licensing board (14); coworker (6); treatment provider (6); self-referral (14) |
| 2007, Galanter et al. [34] US (New York; Nevada) |
retrospective review | 2003–2004 | 104 | 92 | anesthesiologist (21); internal medicine (15); surgeon (14); family practitioner (10); obstetrics-gynecology (9); pediatrician (8); psychiatrist (8); general practitioner (4); emergency medicine (4); radiologist (3); other (5) | alcohol (36); opioids (34); other or mixed (30) | - |
| 2007, Knight et al. [13] US (Massachusetts) |
retrospective observations | 1993–2003 | 132 | 82 | internal medicine (31); psychiatrist (12); surgeon (12); anesthesiologist (11); emergency medicine (8); family practitioner (6); obstetrics-gynecology (6); radiologist (4); pediatrician (3); other (6) | - | - |
| 2008, Brewster et al. [35] Canada |
prospective descriptive | 1995–2007 | 100 | 90 | general or family practitioner (51); specialist (49) | alcohol (51); opioids (37); other (13) | - |
| 2009, DuPont et al. [9] US (Maryland; Pennsylvania; Indiana; Florida) |
retrospective review | 1995–2001 | 904 | 86 | family practitioner (20); internal medicine (13); anesthesiologist (11); emergency medicine (7); psychiatrist (7); other (42) | alcohol (50); opioids (33); stimulants (8); other (9) | licensing board, hospital, malpractice insurance company (55); family member, coworker, employer (45) |
| 2009, Fogger & Mc-Guinness (1) [36] US (Alabama) |
cross-sectional survey | - | 127 | - | registered nurse (77); licensed practical nurse (13); advanced practice registered nurse (8) | opioids (36) | - |
| 2009, Fogger & Mc-Guinness (2) [36] US (Alabama) |
cross-sectional survey | - | 45 | - | registered nurse (78); licensed practical nurse (18); advanced practice registered nurse (4) | - | |
| 2011, Merlo et al. [37] US (Florida) |
retrospective review | ≥ 2005 | 11 | 100 | anesthesiologist (100) | opioids (100) | - |
| 2013, Angres et al. [38] US (Illinois) |
prospective cohort | - | 116 | 68 | physician (48); nurse (24); pharmacist (18); dentist (7); optometrist (1); physician assistant (1); other (1) | - | licensing board (100) |
| 2013, Cross et al. [39] US (Illinois) |
prospective descriptive | 1994–2011 | 116 | 78 | pharmacist (100) | oral opioids (71); alcohol (22); illegal drugs (9); stimulants (8); injected opioids (3) | - |
| 2017, Earley et al. [40] US (Georgia) |
single-arm multisite, open label | 2009–2012 | 38 | 18 | nurse (79); physician (11); pharmacist (3); other (8) | opioids (100) | - |
| 2020, Bruguera et al. [41] Spain |
prospective descriptive | 2008–2016 | 126 | 60 | family practitioner (17); psychiatrist (9); anesthesiologist (9); pediatrician (6); orthopedic surgeons (6); internal medicine (3); resident (4); other (47) | alcohol (63); sedatives, hypnotics, anxiolytics (15); opioids (7); stimulants (6); cannabis (4); cocaine (2); mixed (3) | self-referral (75); coworker or family member (20); other (6) |