Table 3.

Sample, study characteristics, and findings of included studies (N = 20)

Study; Country	Study design & sample (N)	Intervention (s) and study conditions	Assessment time points	Attrition	Relevant outcome (s)	Outcome measure (s)	Relevant findings
*Anderson et al. (2017)	Uncontrolled experimental trial Adolescents 13–18 years with anorexia nervosa (AN) and their parent(s)	TH (video) FBT. 20 sessions over 6 months	Baseline, post-treatment, 6-month follow-up	0	Adolescent weight (BMI), eating disorder symptoms, depressive symptoms, self-esteem	EDE BDI RSE	Significant increase in BMI and reductions in eating disorder symptoms from baseline to post-treatment and to 6-month follow-up. Significant improvement in depressive symptoms and self-esteem from baseline to follow-up
*Comer et al. (2017a); USA	RCT families; child 4–8 years, child diagnosis of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) (N = 22)	TH (video) FB-CBT; F2F FB-CBT 12 sessions over 14 weeks (both conditions)	Baseline, post-treatment, 6-month follow-up	2 families (1 TH, 1 F2F)	Child OCD symptoms Family accommodation of OCD symptoms	ADIS-IV-C/P CY-BOCS CGI-S/I CGAS FAS-PR	Child OCD symptoms and family accommodation of OCD symptoms improved from baseline to post-treatment, and to follow-up in both conditions; no significant difference between TH and F2F. 60–80% had clinically significant improvement across both conditions
*Comer et al. (2017b); USA	RCT Families; children 3–5 years, child diagnosis of behavioural disorder (N = 40)	TH (video) PCIT; F2F PCIT	Baseline, mid-treatment, post-treatment, 6-month follow-up	12 families (6 TH, 6 F2F)	Child behaviour problems	K-DBDS CGI-S/I CGAS ECBI CBCL	Both conditions had large-to-very-large positive effects on children’s behavioural difficulties. Most outcomes were comparable across conditions; significantly higher rate of “excellent responses” in TH PCIT than in F2F PCIT
*Dadds et al. (2019); Australia	RCT (× 2) Study 1: Rural families; child 3–9 years, child diagnosis of oppositional defiant or conduct disorder (N = 133) Study 2: Urban families; child 3–14 years, child diagnosis of oppositional defiant or conduct disorder (N = 73)	Both studies—TH (video) IFICCP; F2F IFICCP	Both studies: Baseline, post-treatment, 3-month follow-up	Study 1: 11 families (7 TH, 4 F2F) Study 2: 7 families (6 F2F, 1 VTC)	Child behaviour problems Parent depression Parent anxiety	SDQ BSI	Large improvements in child behavioural difficulties in both studies; no significant difference between conditions. Moderate improvements in parent depression and anxiety in both studies; no significant difference between treatment conditions
*Davis et al. (2016); USA	RCT Parent–child dyads; child with BMI > 85th percentile for age/gender (N = 103)	TH (video) FB-CBT; telephone-based FB-CBT 8 × weekly meetings, then 6 × monthly meetings in both conditions	Baseline, post-treatment	2 families from telephone condition	Child behaviour problems	CBCL	Children did not display any clinically significant behavioural problems at baseline or post-treatment in either group; no significant group by time interaction effects
Davis et al. (2013); USA	RCT Parent–child dyads; child with BMI > 85th percentile for age/gender (N = 58)	TH (video) psycho-educational group 8 × weekly group meetings, then 6 × monthly meetings; Primary physician visit	Baseline, post-treatment	16 families (11 from TH group; 5 from physician group)	Child behaviour problems	CBCL	Children did not display any clinically significant behavioural problems at baseline or post-treatment in either group; no significant difference between groups
*Glueckauf et al. (2002); USA	Modified randomised controlled field experiment Parent–child dyads; adolescents with seizure disorders (N = 27)	TH (video)-IFCM; telephone-IFCM; F2F IFCM	Baseline, post-treatment, -month follow-up	5 families (4 from F2F; one from WL)	Family problems	ISS IFS ICS SSRS	Significant reductions in family problem severity and frequency across all three study conditions, maintained at follow-up; no significant difference in outcomes between conditions
*Glynn et al. (2010); USA	Quasi-experimental design Adult-relative dyads; person diagnosed with a psychotic disorder and a relative (N = 42)	TH online MFG program; TAU	Baseline, 6-month follow-up, 12-month follow-up	6 dyads	Distress Clinical status of schizophrenia Family relationship distress Perceived social support	BSI BPRS FAS MSPSS	No significant impact on clinical status, perceived social support, or distress in persons with schizophrenia TH. Significant reduction in family relationship distress in TH group
*McGrath et al. (2011); Canada	Experimental trial Parent–child dyads in three groups; child with diagnosis of ODD, ADHD or an anxiety disorder (N = 243)	TH (telephone coaching) skills-based intervention; TAU Anxiety group received 11-weekly sessions, ODD and ADHD groups received 12	Baseline, 4-month follow-up, 8-month follow-up, 12-month follow-up	10 dyads	Child mental health (anxiety, ODD, attention difficulties)	K-SADS-PL	The TH intervention significantly increased treatment success in all three groups, at all three follow-up points, compared to TAU
*Narad et al. (2015); USA	RCT Adolescent-parent dyads; adolescents 12–17 years with a traumatic brain injury (TBI) (N = 132)	TH (video) CAPS, 7–11 sessions; IRC	Baseline, post-treatment, 12-month follow-up, 18 month follow-up	3 dyads (all IRC)	Parent–child conflict Family communication Family problem-solving	PSDRS FAD-PS IFIRS	TH CAPS led to significant decrease in severity of family conflicts for adolescents with severe TBI only. Adolescents with moderate TBI in the CAPS condition did not report a significant a decline in family communication
*Rayner et al. (2016); Australia	Non-randomised feasibility study Parent–child dyads; child had been admitted to hospital with cancer, or for cardiac surgery (N = 13)	TH (video)-ACT, 5 group sessions	Baseline, post-treatment, 2-month follow-up, 8-month follow-up	None	Parent depression Parent anxiety Parent stress Parent PTSD symptoms	DASS CL-S AAQ-II PECI PPF	Small, non-significant changes in parent depression, anxiety, and stress from baseline to post-intervention. No significant changes in parent PTSD symptoms
*Rotondi et al. (2005); USA	RCT Adult-relative dyads; person with a psychotic disorder and support persons; (N = 51)	TH (internet discussion board group communication and website) for three groups; family members/support persons only, persons with psychotic disorder only, and MFG for all participants. TAU	Baseline, 3-months post-baseline, 6-months post-baseline	No data reported	Perceived stress Perceived social support	Interview data	Participants in TH condition had greater reductions in stress compared to participants in TAU. Non-significant trend toward greater perceived social support for participants in TH condition
*Sibley et al. (2017); USA	Feasibility study Parent–adolescent dyads; adolescent with diagnosis of ADHD (N = 20)	TH (video) skills-based treatment for ADHD, 10 sessions	Baseline and post-treatment	3 families	Inattention symptom severity	DBD	Significant improvement in inattention symptom severity scores from baseline to post-treatment
*Stormshak et al. (2019); USA	Case control Parent–child dyads (N = 322)	TH (telephone support) and web resources Web resources (IRC) only WC	Baseline and post-treatment (3 months)	21 families (2 WC; 8 IRC; 11 from coaching group)	Child behaviour problems	EATQ-R SDQ PTC	TH was significantly more effective than IRC or WC. Small-medium improvements in child behavioural problems in the TH condition
*Vander Stoep et al. (2017); USA	RCT Parent–child dyads; children with a diagnosis of ADHD (N = 223)	TH (video) psychiatry and child behaviour management training, 6 sessions TAU	Baseline, one month, 10 weeks, 19 weeks, post-treatment	13.5% TH, 9.8% TAU	Parenting stress Parent depression Caregiver strain Family empowerment	PSI PHQ-9 CSQ FES	Participants in the TH condition showed significantly greater improvements in parenting stress, parent depression, caregiver strain, and family empowerment than participants in TAU
*Wade et al. (2006); USA	RCT Parent–child dyads; children with moderate-to-severe TBI (N = 39)	TH (video) FPS, 12 × weekly sessions IRC	Baseline and post-treatment	5 families (all FPS)	Child behaviour problems	CBCL	Non-significant trends for greater improvement in child behaviour problems for participants in FPS compared to participants receiving IRC. Children in the FPS condition reported greater behavioural self-management/compliance with parent instructions
*Wade et al. (2019); USA	RCT Parent–adolescent dyads; adolescents 14–18 years with mild-to-severe TBI with behavioural impairment (N = 150)	TH (video) FPS, 10 group sessions F2F FPS, 10 group sessions Self-guided online FPS	Baseline, post-treatment, 6-month follow-up, 9-month follow-up	34 families (12 F2F; 13 TH; 9 self-guided)	Parent depression Parent global mental health	CES-D BSI	TH led to significant reductions in depression, and improvements in parent global mental health maintained at final follow-up; no significant differences between conditions
*Wade et al. (2015); USA	RCT Parent–child dyads; adolescents 12–17 years with TBI (N = 132)	TH (video) FPS and internet resources, IRC 6-month duration of intervention for both conditions	Baseline, post-treatment, 6-month follow-up, 12-month follow-up, 18-month follow-up	6 families (3 TH; 3 IRC)	Daily functioning of child	CAFAS	TH led to significant improvements in child daily functioning; these improvements were only evident at final follow-up, 18-month post-intervention
Wade et al. (2018); USA	RCT Parent–child dyads; adolescents 11–18 years, with mild-to-severe TBI (N = 152)	TH (video) with self-guided online sessions TOPS-Family or TOPS-TO (Teenager Only); IRC Both TOPS conditions had 10 sessions	Baseline, post-treatment, 6-month follow-up	37 families (13 TOPS-Family; 12 TOPS-TO; 12 IRC)	Child behaviour problems Child executive functioning	CBCL BRIEF	Treatment effects on child behaviour problems were only evident for parents with low educational attainment in the TOPS-Family condition. Child executive functioning improved in the TOPS-TO condition, but only for families where parents reported higher levels of family stressors; no significant differences between conditions
*Williams et al. (2016); Australia	Pilot RCT Parent–child dyads; children aged 2–8 years receiving treatment for leukemia (N = 12)	TH (video) weekly × 5 group sessions plus 3 × individual telephone calls Triple P: Positive Parenting Program; WC	Baseline, post-treatment, 2-week follow-up, 2-month follow-up	6 families (3 from each group)	Child behaviour problems	SDQ	No significant group differences in changes in child behavioural and emotional problems. Non-significant trend toward improvement in child behaviour problems in the treatment condition relative to WC

Outcome Measures: AAQ-II Acceptance and Action Questionnaire–II, ADIS-IV-C/P Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children and Parents for DSM–IV, ASDS Acute Stress Disorder Scale, BDI Beck Depression Inventory, BPRS Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale, BRIEF Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functions, BSI Brief Symptom Inventory, CAFAS Child and Adolescent Functional Assessment Scale, CBCL Child Behavior Checklist, CES-D = Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, CGAS Children’s Global Assessment Scale, CGI-S/I Clinical Global Impression-Severity and Improvement Scales, CSQ Caregiver Strain Questionnaire, CY-BOCS Children’s Yale-Brown Obsessive- Compulsive Scale, DASS Depression Anxiety Stress Scales, DBD Disruptive Behaviour Disorder Rating Scale, EATQ-R Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire, ECBI Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory, EDE Eating Disorder Examination (Interview), FAD-PS Family Assessment Device Problem-Solving subscale, FAS-PR Family Accommodation Scale–Parent Report, FAS Family Attitude Scale, FES Family Empowerment Scale, ICS Issue Change Scale, IFIRS Iowa Family Interaction Rating Scale, IFS Issue Frequency Scale, ISS Issue Severity Scale, K-DBDS Kiddie-Disruptive Behavior Disorders Schedule, K-SADS-PL Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia-Present and Lifetime Versions, SDQ Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, MSPSS Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, PCIT Parent–Child Interaction Therapy, PCL-S Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist-Specific, PECI Parent Experience of Child Illness, PHQ-9 The Patient Health Questionnaire, PPF Parental Psychological Flexibility Questionnaire, PSDRS Problem-Solving Discussion Rating Scale, PSI Parenting Stress Index, PTC Parenting Tasks Checklist, RSE Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, SSRS Social Skills Rating System, Interventions: ACT Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, CAPS Counsellor-Assisted Problem-Solving, F2F Face-to-Face in-person delivery, FB-CBT Family-Based Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy, FBT Family-based Therapy, FPS Family Problem-Solving Therapy, IFCM Issue-Specific Family Counselling Model, IFICCP Integrated Family Intervention for Child Conduct Problems, IRC Internet-resource comparison, MFG Multi-Family Group, TAU Treatment As Usual, TH Telehealth, TOPS-Family Teen Online Problem Solving with Family, TOPS-TO Teen Online Problem Solving with Teen Only, WC Wait-list Control