Table 1.

Sources of exposure.

Substance	Sources of Exposure
Cd [8,13,14]	❖Transported via air, water and soil. ❖Exposure through: diet/contaminated food and drinking water. Tobacco smoke and inhalation by workers in a range of industries. ❖Natural and anthropogenic sources of Cd: erosion of parent rocks, volcanic eruptions and forest fires. Use in plastics as color pigment and stabilizer, automobile radiators, alkaline batteries, mining activities, fertilizers, sewage sludge, inappropriate waste disposal.
Pb [8]	❖Exposure through: inhalation, oral and trans-placental and via direct contact with Pb products. Mostly via environment: air, water and soil. ❖Sources: multiple man-made substances such as petrol additives. Pb-based paints. Inorganic Pb or Pb salts (Pb pipes and solders in plumbing systems, Pb-soldered cans, batteries etc.).
Phthalates [8,15,16]	❖Ubiquitously present in the environment. ❖Exposure through: ingestion, inhalation and dermal exposure. ❖Sources: released, leached, migrated or evaporated into environment (water, air, dust), foodstuff or other materials (personal-care and consumer products). ❖Sources for DEHP: contamination of food and food contact materials.
PFASs [8,17,18]	❖Ubiquitously present in the environment. ❖Exposure through: diet/food, ❖Sources: diet/food (especially seafood) drinking water, consumer products (textiles, clothes, footwear, furniture and carpets), lubricants, waxes, paints, and fire-fighting foam, and indirectly through transformation of precursory substances.