Table 2.

Intervention studies (n, subjects’ number; y, age (years)).

Experimental Model	Tested Parameters	Observations	Non-Alcoholic Beer	Alcoholic Beer	Ethanol	References
intervention trial (healthy adults), 30 days, 355 mL beer/day with (4.9%, n = 33, 21–55 y) or without alcohol (0.5%, n = 35, 21–53 y)	microbiota composition, fasting blood serum glucose, β-cell function	both beer interventions increased microbiota diversity, but only non-alcoholic beer increased heathier diversity and β-cells function and decreased fasting blood serum glucose	yes	yes	no	[111]
controlled clinical trial (healthy adults, n = 20, 18–45 y, single blind, randomized, crossover), single dose of beer (250 mL), with (4.5 or 8,5%) or without (0%) alcohol	urinary tyrosol (TYR) and hydroxytyrosol (HT)	non-alcoholic beer intervention increased HT recovery (and reduced TYR recovery) compared to alcoholic beer	yes	yes	no	[12]
intervention controlled trial (high cardiovascular risk males, n = 33, 55–75 y, open, randomized, crossover), 4 weeks, daily: 660 mL beer (1029 mg polyphenols and 30 g ethanol) or 990 mL non-alcoholic beer (1243 mg polyphenols and <1 g ethanol) or 100 mL gin (30 g ethanol)	urinary metabolomics	both beer intervention increased to similar extent urine excretion of hop α-acids and fermentation products, compared to gin intervention	yes	yes	yes	[112]
intervention controlled trial (high cardiovascular risk males, n = 33, 55–75 y, open, randomized, crossover), 4 weeks, daily: 660 mL beer (1029 mg polyphenols and 30 g ethanol) or 990 mL non-alcoholic beer (1243 mg polyphenols and <1 g ethanol) or 100 mL gin (30 g ethanol)	atherosclerotic and inflammation plasma biomarkers and peripheral blood mononuclear cells immunophenotyping	only non-alcoholic beer intervention reduced leukocyte adhesion molecules and inflammatory biomarkers, but alcoholic beer and gin interventions improved plasma lipid and atherosclerosis inflammatory markers	yes	yes	yes	[113]
intervention controlled trial (high cardiovascular risk males, n = 33, 55–75 y, open, randomized, crossover), 4 weeks, daily: 660 mL beer (1029 mg polyphenols and 30 g ethanol) or 990 mL non-alcoholic beer (1243 mg polyphenols and <1 g ethanol) or 100 mL gin (30 g ethanol)	number of circulating endothelial progenitor cells (EPC)	8-fold and 5-fold increases of EPC number respectively in alcoholic and non-alcoholic beer interventions and statistically not significant 5-fold decrease in gin administration	yes	yes	yes	[114]
intervention controlled trial (high cardiovascular risk males, n = 33, 55–75 y, open, randomized, crossover), 4 weeks, daily: 660 mL beer (1029 mg polyphenols and 30 g ethanol) or 990 mL non-alcoholic beer (1243 mg polyphenols and <1 g ethanol) or 100 mL gin (30 g ethanol)	urinary isoxanthohumol	beer administrations (not gin) induced similar excretion of urinary isoxanthohumol	yes	yes	yes	[115]
intervention trial (stressed healthy females, n = 17, 40.9 ± 10.5 y, randomized, crossover), 2 weeks 330 mL beer/day, first week non-alcoholic, second week alcoholic	antioxidant capacity in urine	non-alcoholic beer administration induced higher antioxidant capacity compared to alcoholic beer one	yes	yes	no	[110]
intervention trial (healthy males n = 17, 28.5 ± 5.2 y, randomized, single-blind, crossover), single dose (800 mL) beer (48 mg polyphenols and 20 g ethanol) or non-alcoholic beer (48 mg polyphenols) or vodka (20 g ethanol)	endothelial function, aortic stiffness, pressure wave reflections and aortic pressure	non-alcoholic and alcoholic beer interventions improved (similarly) arterial biomarkers but the effects were observed also for the vodka intervention alcoholic beer intervention improved wave reflections reduction better than vodka intervention	yes	yes	yes	[87]
intervention trial (postpartum breastfeeding-mother-infants dyads), 30 days 660 mL/day non-alcoholic beer (n = 30, 30 ± 5 y) or not (n = 30, 31 ± 3 y)	breastmilk, plasma and urine oxidative status	non-alcoholic beer increased breastmilk and plasma antioxidant capacities	yes	no	no	[107]
intervention trial (healthy male marathon runners, double-blind), 5 weeks (from 3 before to 2 after marathon) 1.0–1.5 L non-alcoholic beer (n = 142, 36–51 y) or control beverage without polyphenols (n = 135, 35–49)	blood inflammatory markers and upper respiratory tract illness (URTI) rates	non-alcoholic beer intervention reduced after-run blood inflammatory markers and URTI rates, compared to the polyphenols-free beverage	yes	no	no	[116]
intervention trial (healthy males, n = 10, 21–29 y, randomized, single-blind, crossover), single dose (7 mL/kg body wt) alcoholic beer (0.4 g/L GAE polyphenols and 0.32 g ethanol/kg body wt) or vodka (0.32 g ethanol/kg body wt)	plasma lipid peroxides, uric acid concentration and arterial stiffness following 100% O2 breathing-oxidative stress	alcoholic beer intervention protected against oxygen-induced increase in arterial stiffness but so did vodka	no	yes	yes	[106]
intervention (post-menopausal healthy females, n = 29, 64.5 ± 5.3 y, longitudinal), 45 days 500 mL alcoholic-free beer/day	lipid profile and plasma inflammatory markers	alcoholic-free beer intervention improved lipid profile and plasma inflammatory markers	yes	no	no	[108]
controlled clinical trial (hypercholesterolemic non-drinker males, n = 42, 43–71 y, randomized, single-blind), 30 days, daily: 330 mL 5.4% beer (20 g alcohol and 510 mg polyphenols) or water (containing beer mineral)	coronary atherosclerosis plasma markers	alcoholic beer intervention improved coronary atherosclerosis plasma markers compared to control administration water	no	yes	no	[117]
intervention (healthy adults, n = 10, 25–45 y, randomized), single dose (500 mL) 4.5% alcoholic beer	phenolic acids plasma metabolites	alcoholic beer intervention demonstrates absorption and metabolism of phenolic acids to glucuronide and sulfate conjugates	no	yes	no	[103]
intervention (healthy normotensive drinking men, n = 28, 20–65 y, randomized, crossover), 4 weeks, daily: 1125 mL 4.6% beer (41 g alcohol) or 375 mL 13% red wine 2023 mg/L polyphenols) or 375 mL dealcoholized red wine (2094 mg/L polyphenols)	blood pressure and vascular function following brachial artery flow-mediated and glyceryl trinitrate-mediated dilatation	alcoholic beer (but also wine) increased awake systolic blood pressure and asleep heart rate	no	yes	no	[118]
intervention (healthy adults, 25–45 y, randomized no crossover), single dose (500 mL): 4.5% alcoholic (n = 14) or dealcoholized beer or 4.5% ethanol (n = 7)	total plasma antioxidant status	alcoholic beer administration improved higher plasma antioxidant capacity compared to the dealcoholized one, thanks to higher absorption of phenolic acids	yes	yes	yes	[104]
intervention (healthy males, n = 5, 23–40 y), single dose (4 L) low-alcohol (1%) beer	urinary ferulic and its glucuronide	beer administration demonstrates bioavailability of ferulic acid	yes	no	no	[102]
intervention trial (healthy male drinkers, n = 27, 49.2 ± 2.3 y, randomized, crossover), 4 weeks, daily 375 mL: 4.9% or 0.9% beer (similar phenolic content 310–330 mg/L)	LDL in vitro oxidizability and characterization	switch from low to high alcoholic beer intervention increased LDL oxidizability	yes	yes	no	[109]