Table 3.
Observational studies (n, subjects’ number; y, age (years)).
| Experimental Model | Tested Parameters | Observations | Non-Alcoholic Beer | Alcoholic Beer | Ethanol | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| observational (ALMICROBHOL adults n = 78, 25–50 y), alcoholics BCQ | microbiota composition (16S rRNA sequencing) and short chain fatty acid profile in fecal samples | higher butyric acid concentration and gut microbial diversity in consumers vs. non-consumers of beer | no | yes | no | [122] |
| observational (TwinsUK females n = 916, 16–98 y), alcoholics FFQ | microbiota composition in fecal samples (16S rRNA sequencing) | no association between beer (nor all alcohols except wine) consumption and gut microbial diversity | no | yes | yes | [123] |
| observational (MEAL Southern Italy adults, n = 2044, >18 y), phenolics FFQ | hypertension (arterial blood pressure measurement) | inverse association between beer consumption and hypertension | no | yes | no | [121] |
| observational prospective (2002–2003 CMHS Californian males n = 84,170, 45–69 y), alcoholics FFQ | prostate cancer registries (Surveillance Epidemiology and End Result) | no association between beer (nor wine nor liquor) consumption and prostate cancer | no | yes | yes | [124] |
| observational cross-sectional (IMMIDIET Italy–Belgium–UK female–male pairs, n = 1604, 26–65 y), alcoholics FFQ | plasma and red blood cell omega–3 fatty acids | no association between beer consumption and plasma or red blood cell omega 3 fatty acids (reduced for wine) | no | yes | no | [119] |
| observational 34 year prospective (PPSWG Sweden females, n = 1462; 38, 46, 50, 54, 60 y), alcoholics BCQ | dementia (neuropsychiatric years-repeated examinations) | direct association between beer (or wine) consumption and longevity and reduced dementia risk (compared to subjects consuming only spirits) | no | yes | yes | [125] |
| observational (over 10 years) case-control matched leukoplakia subjects (n = 187 + 187, 40–65 y), alcoholics FFQ | leukoplakia (clinical examination and biopsy) | no significant association between moderate beer drinking and leukoplakia risk (increased for spirit and reduced for wine) | no | yes | yes | [126] |
| observational case-control prospective (1987–2004 IWHS) diabetes postmenopausal females (n = 35,816; 55–69 y), flavonoids FFQ | self-reported diabetes | inverse association between beer (or other alcoholic beverages including liquor) consumption and diabetes risk | no | yes | yes | [127] |
| observational oral cancer mortality rate (20 Nations male 2002 age-standardized), national mean alcoholic beverage consumption | oral cancer mortality rates (International Agency for Research on Cancer) | no association between beer (nor wine, but association for spirits) consumption alone and oral cancer risk | no | yes | yes | [128] |
| observational case-control matched (1993–1996 King County, WA) prostate cancer subjects (n = 753 + 703; 40–64 y), alcoholics BCQ | prostate cancer registry (Seattle Puget Sound Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results Cancer Registry), histological confirmation | no association for beer consumption (nor liquor but association for wine) and prostate cancer risk | no | yes | yes | [129] |
| observational case-control matched prospective (1980–1993 Québec) child acute lymphoblastic leukemia (n = 491 + 491; 0–9 y), parents alcoholics BCQ | child acute lymphoblastic leukemia hospital diagnosis | inverse association between mothers’ beer (but not spirits) consumption and child acute lymphoblastic leukemia | no | yes | yes | [130] |
FFQ, food frequency questionnaires; BCQ, beverage consumption questionnaires; ALMICROBHOL, Effects of Alcohol Consumption on Gut Microbiota Composition in Adults; TwinsUK, UK Adult Twin Registry; MEAL, Mediterranean healthy Eating, Ageing, and Lifestyle; CMHS, California Men’s Health Study; IMMIDIET, Dietary Habit Profile in European Communities with Different Risk of Myocardial Infarction: the Impact of Migration as a Model of Gene-Environment Interaction; PPSWG, The Prospective Study of Women in Gothenburg; IWHS, Iowa Women’s Health Study.