TABLE 1.
The authenticity of ginseng commercial herbal products sold on the global market.
| Country/territory | Labeled and authenticated Panax sp./type of herbal product | Identified adulterant | Product composition | Products | Authentication methods | Ref | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total | Authentic | Adulterated | ||||||
| no | no | no | ||||||
| Botanical identity | ||||||||
| Brazil | P. ginseng | Pfaffia spp. | Root products (0.2% ginsenoside Rg1 and 0.1% ginsenoside Rb1, HPLC) | 5 | 0 | 5 | DNA barcoding | (Palhares et al., 2015) |
| China | P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius, P. notoginseng | n/a | Batches of TCM compound preparations (e.g. pill, bag, injection, capsule, tablet, powder, dripping pill) | 40 | 38 | 2 | LC–MS | (Yang et al., 2016) |
| China | P. ginseng | P. quinquefolius | Batches of CPMs containing ginseng products | 24 | 19 | 5 | DNA barcoding | (Liu et al., 2016) |
| China | P. ginseng | P. quinquefolius | Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma samples | 15 | 12 | 3 | DNA barcoding | (Han et al., 2016) |
| China | P. notoginseng | n/a | Baches of CPM Shuxiong tablets prepared from Notoginseng Radix et Rhizoma), Carthami Flos, and Chuanxiong Rhizoma | 12 | 12 | 0 | UPLC/QTOF-Fast DDA | (Yao et al., 2016) |
| China | P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius | n/a | CPMs containing ginseng or American ginseng | 11 | 8 | 3 | MAS-PCR | (Cheng et al., 2015) |
| China | P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius, P. notoginseng | n/a | TCHMs multi-ingredient ginseng preparations, Sheng Mai Yin (SMY) capsule and granules | 11 | 6 | 5 | HPTLC | (Xie et al., 2006) |
| China | P. notoginseng | flower of P. notoginseng | TCM preparations with P. notoginseng powder (dry roots and rootstock) | 10 | 9 | 1 | UPLC/Qtof MS | (Liu et al., 2015) |
| China | P. ginseng | n/a | Ginseng containing samples | 10 | 8 | 2 | PCR | (Zhou et al., 2016) |
| China | P. ginseng | P. quinquefolius, Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A.DC. (Campanulaceae), Physochlaina infundibularisKuang (Solanaceae), Phytolacca acinosa Roxb. (Phytolaccaceae) | Root samples | 8 | 5 | 3 | NIR barcode | (Dong et al., 2020) |
| China | P. ginseng | n/a | Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma (dried roots and rhizomes of P. ginseng) | 3 | 3 | 0 | DNA barcoding | (Zhang et al., 2019) |
| China | P. ginseng, P. notoginseng | n/a | steamed roots of P. ginseng; powdered roots of P. notoginseng | 2 | 2 | 0 | DNA barcoding | (Dong et al., 2014) |
| China | P. ginseng | n/a | Shihu Yeguang Pills containing Ginseng Radix Et Rhizoma | 1 | 1 | 0 | DNA barcoding | (Jiang et al., 2019) |
| China | P. ginseng | n/a | Batches of Asian ginseng | 11 | 11 | 0 | UPLC/Q-TOF-MS | (Li et al., 2010) |
| China | P. quinquefolius | n/a | Batches of American ginseng | 7 | 7 | 0 | ||
| Canada | P. quinquefolius | n/a | Batches of American ginseng | 5 | 5 | 0 | ||
| United States | P. quinquefolius | n/a | Batches of American ginseng | 4 | 4 | 0 | ||
| China | P. quinquefolius | P. ginseng | Batches of American ginseng preparations | 13 | 0 | 13 | ||
| China | P. ginseng | leaf/stem | Root extract | 1 | 0 | 1 | HPTLC, HPLC | (Govindaraghavan, 2017) |
| European Union | P. ginseng | P. ginseng leaf or other plant parts, P. quinquefolius roots | Root extracts, stem/leaf extract, berry extract | 12 | 6 | 6 | ||
| Australia | P. ginseng | P. ginseng leaf or other plant parts | Capsules (extract or herb), tablet | 4 | 1 | 3 | ||
| South Korea | P. ginseng | n/a | P. ginseng extract, tea, capsule | 3 | 3 | 0 | Multiplex PCR | (Tian et al., 2020) |
| China | P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius | n/a | P. ginseng extract, tea, capsule; P. quinquefolius extract, tea, capsule | 6 | 6 | 0 | ||
| United States | P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius | n/a | P. quinquefolius extract, tea, capsule | 3 | 3 | 0 | ||
| Hong Kong | P. ginseng | n/a | Ready-to-serve ginseng soup | 1 | 1 | 0 | Multiplex PCR, DNA sequencing | (Lo et al., 2015) |
| Hong Kong | P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius | n/a | Dried roots, powders, tea granules | 7 | 7 | 0 | PCR, HAD | (Jiang et al., 2014) |
| Italy | P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius | n/a | Raw materials (as body root, root tails and root prongs), capsules and tablets (containing dried extract) | 19 | 12 | 7 | RFLP, HPLC | (Del Serrone et al., 2006) |
| South Korea | P. ginseng | n/a | decoctions, beverages, capsules, tablets | 61 | 61 | 0 | HPLC, UPLC–DAD–ESI-IT-TOF-MS | (Choi et al., 2018) |
| South Korea | P. ginseng | n/a | Bak-Ho-Ga-Insam-Tang resources containing P. ginseng | 14 | 14 | 0 | Gradient PCR | (Shim et al., 2005) |
| Taiwan | P. ginseng | not composed of 6 years old ginseng radix only | White ginseng radix sliced material, powder, capsules | 7 | 6 | 1 | 1H-NMR | (Lin et al., 2010) |
| China | P. ginseng | n/a | white ginseng radix sliced material | 1 | 1 | 0 | ||
| Taiwan | P. ginseng | Panacis quinquefolii Radix | Chinese medical preparations containing Ginseng Radix | 58 | 27 | 31 | nested PCR, RFLP, DNA sequencing | (Lu et al., 2010) |
| United Kingdom | P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius, P. notoginseng | n/a | American ginseng, white Asian ginseng, sanchi ginseng | 8 | 8 | 0 | LC-MS | (Kite et al., 2003) |
| United States | P. ginseng | Astragalus propinquus Schischkin (Leguminosae) | Single ingredient HMP | 1 | 0 | 1 | DNA barcoding | (Molina et al., 2018) |
| United States | P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius | n/a | Ground P. quinquefolius root (capsule), red P. ginseng root extract (liquid vial) | 2 | 2 | 0 | UPLC/QTOF-MS | (Yuk et al., 2016) |
| United States | P. quinquefolius | P. ginseng | American ginseng products | 6 | 4 | 2 | HPLC | (Yu et al., 2014) |
| United States | P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius | soybean | American and Korean ginseng fresh or dried roots, powders, capsules, tablets | 24 | 22 | 2 | PCR, RAPD, HPLC | (Mihalov et al., 2000) |
| China | P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius | n/a | American and Korean ginseng dried root | 2 | 2 | 0 | ||
| United States and Canada | P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius | P. quinquefolius | NHPs containing Red Korean, Korean, American, sand ginseng (capsules, tablets, roots, carved roots, extracts, teas, and dried and shredded products | 36 | 22 | 14 | DNA barcoding | (Wallace et al., 2012) |
| Total | 468 | 358 | 110 | |||||
| Chemical composition | ||||||||
| China | Functional food for relieving physical fatigue | Testosterone, adalafil, sildenafil | Fur seal ginseng pills with complex herbal composition, including P. ginseng | 16 | 13 | 3 | HPLC | (Wang et al., 2019) |
| China | Antidiabetic functional food | Tolbutamide, glimepiride, metformin | Bitter melon and ginseng soft gels containing also containing American ginseng root | 16 | 13 | 3 | UPLC-Q-Orbitrap-MS/MS | (Xie et al., 2019) |
| China | Herbal medicines for male sexual health | Sildenafil, hongdenafil, vardenafil, homosildenafil | Complex herbal composition, including Radix et rhizoma ginseng or Radix et rhizoma ginseng rubra (tablet, capsule, pills, soft gel capsule) | 4 | 0 | 4 | TLC, HPLC-MS | (Cai et al., 2010) |
| Saudi Arabia | Dietary supplements for weight loss, slimming and as a stimulant or stamina enhancer | Theobromine, theophylline, pseudoephedrine, caffeine, hydrochlorothiazide, yohimbine | Ginseng extract (capsule), Korean Ginseng (capsule) | 2 | 2 | 0 | UHPLC–DAD | (Ahmad et al., 2020) |
| Sweden | Dietary supplement | Ephedrine | Ginseng preparation | 1 | 0 | 1 | n/a | (Cui et al., 1994) |
| Total | 39 | 28 | 11 | |||||
| TOTAL | 507 | 386 | 121 | |||||