Table 3.

Proposed and current treatments for cytokine storm in COVID-19 patients.

Treatment	Status for COVID-19 Treatment	References
Blood purification	Effective for use with severe/critical patients with cytokine storm and rapid disease progression. Multicenter clinical studies still needed.	[112], [137], [138]
Corticosteroids	Various studies have not shown corticosteroids to be effective for mild cases. But it may be effective in severe/critical cases when used early and for a short period, at a low/ moderate dosage or use with cytokine inhibitors like tocilizumab or anakinra. Clinical trials are underway to investigate their efficacy and safety.	[104], [138], [139], [140], [141], [142]
IFN-λ	Preclinical studies are promising. IFN-λ has not yet been used in COVID-19 patients, but clinical trials are beginning to investigate its effecicay.	[19], [105]
IL-1 inhibitors	Promising preclinical and clinical studies for severe COVID-19 treatment. Clinical trials are still ongoing to confirm the efficacy.	[143], [144], [145], [146]
IL-6 inhibitors (tocilizumab, sarilumab, siltuximab)	Tocilizumab effective for severe/critical patients. Approved for use in patients with elevated IL-6 in China.	[108], [147]
IVIG	Effective used early and with high dose in severe/critical patients. Must be administered carefully due to numerous adverse effects.	[100], [110], [111]
JAK inhibitors (baricitinib, ruxolitinib, fedratinib)	Promising preclinical and clinical studies, but not yet suggested for treatment. Need further confirmation of its efficacy.	[109], [148]
Mesenchymal stem cell therapy	Promising preclinical and clinical studies. Shown to be effective in patients, especially in a severe case. Proposed for compassionate use in critically ill patients.	[114], [149], [115]
TNF inhibitors (adalimumab)	Promising preclinical studies. Only one clinical trial in China has been registered. More trials are needed.	[144], [150]
Ulinastatin	May be a promising therapy at high doses, with clinical trials underway in China.	[151], [152]