Table 1.

Anthocyanin’s beneficial effects and bioavailability in human subjects.

Cohort and Study Details	Anthocyanin Intake	Aim	Bioavailability Data	Outcome	Reference
49 healthy adult former smokers (25 M; 24 F) (mean age 35 ± 2.8 years) Duration: 12 weeks Randomized controlled trial	Treatment group (n = 25): 500 mg Aronia melanocarpa extract (9.02% anthocyanins, 7.14% hydroxycinnamic acids and 8.38% proanthocyanidins). Placebo group (n = 24): 500 mg rice powder with 0.2% beet juice concentrate.	Modulation plasma lipids (change in LDL cholesterol was the primary outcome), blood pressure, biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress, lipid transport genes of peripheral blood mononuclear cells.	Overnight urinary anthocyanins were significantly higher in the treatment group vs. placebo group (0.332 ± 0.136 vs. 0.051 ± 0.022 mg mg−1 creatinine). Urinary peonidin-3-galactoside was 0.0062 ± 0.0026 mg mg−1 creatinine in the treatment group vs. 0.0008 ± 0.0005 mg mg−1 creatinine in placebo group (p < 0.05). The excretion of the other polyphenols was not significantly affected.	After 12 weeks, Aronia consumption compared with the placebo group showed: ↓ 8% fasting plasma total cholesterol (p = 0.0140), ↓ 11% LDL cholesterol (p = 0.02), ↓ LDL receptor protein in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (p = 0.0036).	[13]
20 Healthy subjects (UK) (9 M; 11 F) mean age (44.55 ± 13.34 years) Duration: acute consumption Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study	250 mL of either a blackcurrant juice drink (20% of anthocyanins) or the control drink. Sample collection after consumption: Blood: periodically up to 480 min; Urine: every 2 h and at 24 h.	To measure vascular reactivity at 120 min after juice consumption.	The urinary percentage anthocyanins excreted after 120 min was 0.021 ± 0.003% and 0.009 ± 0.002% of the dietary intake of delphinidin glycosides and cyanidin glycosides, respectively.	No significant effects on vascular reactivity were found. An increase in plasmatic vitamin C was observed (p = 0.006).	[16]
15 subjects with coronary artery disease (13 M; 2 F) (mean age: 62 ± 8 years) Duration: acute consumption Pilot study	480 mL cranberry juice (54% juice; 835 mg total polyphenols; 94.47 mg anthocyanins). Sample collection after consumption: Plasma and urine: after 4 h.	To evaluate plasma redox capacity.	Plasma concentrations ranged between 0.56 and 4.64 nmol L−1. Total urinary anthocyanins were 0.79 ± 0.90% of the amount taken. Cyanidin-glucoside and peonidin-glucoside were the most available (0.007 ± 0.004% and 0.029 ± 0.059% of the dose delivered).	Anthocyanin plasmatic concentrations were not able to reduce oxidative stress.	[24]
20 healthy females (mean age: 27.8 ± 7 years) Randomized controlled trial Duration: 2 weeks	Treatment group (n = 11) 750 mL per day (3 × 250 mL) of cranberry juice (total anthocyanins = 2.80 ± 0.19 mg L−1; where 29.2% peonidin galactoside, 26.1% cyanidin arabinoside, 21.7% cyanidin galactoside, 17.5% peonidin arabinoside, 4.1% peonidin glucoside, and 1.4% cyanidin glucoside). Placebo group (n = 9): natural mineral water with strawberry flavor.	Plasma antioxidant activity and biomarkers of oxidative stress (total phenol concentrations, reduced glutathione levels (GSH) and plasma free radical trapping capacity (FRAP)). Activity of blood’s antioxidant enzymes (SOD, catalase and GSH-Px). Urinary excretion of MDA and 8-oxo-deoxyguanosine (as marker of DNA damage).	Neither anthocyanins nor catechins were detectable in plasma samples isolated from both groups, only vitamin C increased significantly (p < 0.01) in the cranberry juice group. Further, catechins were not detectable in the urine samples.	Hcy, TC, TG, HDL, and LDL were unchanged. The antioxidant potential of the plasma, GSH-Px, catalase and SOD activities, MDA and 8-oxo-deoxyguanosine levels were not significantly different in both groups.	[25]
18 healthy subjects (10 M; 8 F) (25–47 years) Duration: 4 weeks Randomized crossover study	1 L per day of either blood orange juice (OJ) (from Moro, Tarocco, and Sanguinello varieties) or blond OJ that contains no anthocyanins (from Valencia, navel, and Belladonna varieties). Blood orange juice contained: 53.09 ± 5.31 mg L−1 total anthocyanins, 3.96 ± 0.20 mg L−1 delphinidin-3-glucoside, 25.79 ± 1.17 mg L−1 cyandin-3-glucoside, 17.88 ± 0.95 mg L−1 cyanidin-3-(6-malonylglucoside).	Potential effects on cell markers of platelet and leukocyte activation (P-selectin, PAC-1, leukocyte activation markers CD11b) due to anthocyanins absorption after daily supplementation with blood OJ for 1 month.	Mean levels of anthocyanins (11.47 ± 5.63 nmol L−1) significantly differed from baseline in 24-h urinary excretion. Anthocyanins levels remained substantially unchanged until the end of treatment (p = 0.1).	The anthocyanin plasma levels reached were insufficient to significantly modify cell markers of platelet and leukocyte activation and interaction. Urinary excretions of anthocyanins considered showed a significant increase after blood OJ consumption (p < 0.05).	[26]
16 healthy females (20–27 years) Duration: 3 weeks Randomized crossover study	Group A (n = 8) - Standardized diet without orange juice; - Wash out period; - Standardized diet with 600 mL/day of blood orange juice. Group B (n = 8) - Standardized diet with 600 mL/day of blood orange juice; - Wash-out period; - Standardized diet without orange juice. Each period was of 21 days. 100 mL of orange juice contained: 75.2 mg vitamin C, 67 μg of β-cryptoxanthin, 20 μg of lutein, 18 μg of zeaxanthin, 17 μg of lycopene, 10 μg of β-carotene, and 8 μg of α-carotene, 3.5 mg cyanidin-3-glucoside, 1.2 mg cyanidin-3-glucoside-6″-malonyl.	To evaluate the effect on plasma antioxidant concentrations and on markers of lipid peroxidation malondialdehyde (MDA) and 11-dehydro-tromboxane 2 (TXB2)	Cyanidin 3-glucoside mean plasma concentration was, after the washout period, about 0.6 nmol L−1 and increased from 0.56 nmol L−1 to ∼8 nmol L−1 after 3 weeks of blood orange juice intake (p < 0.05). Both the aglycone and the cyanidin-3-glucoside-6″-malonyl were not detected in plasma.	Plasma antioxidant capacity did not increase after the 3 weeks of juice intake. The daily intake of orange juice did not affect the biomarkers of lipid oxidation malondialdehyde (MDA), and 11-dehydro-TXB2.	[27]

LDL, Low Density Lipoproteins; GSH-Px, glutathione peroxidase; MDA, malondialdehyde; PAC-1, procaspase-activating compound-1; SOD, superoxide dismutase; OJ, orange juice; Hcy, Homocysteine; TG, triglycerides.