Table 1.
association between sociodemographic characteristics and the psychological impact of the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in the DASS-21 subscales.
| Variables | n (%) | DASS Stress | DASS Depression | DASS Anxiety | ||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bootstrap | Bootstrap | Bootstrap | ||||||||||||||||||
| Meanª | SE | B | 95% IC | Meanª | SE | B | 95% IC | Meanª | SE | B | 95% IC | |||||||||
| Country | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Italy | 420 (26.1) | 20.60 | 1.32 | 11.16** | 9.59 | to | 12.86 | 18.49 | 1.23 | 8.87** | 7.14 | to | 10.59 | 10.08 | 1.20 | 2.36** | 0.83 | to | 3.75 | |
| United States | 158 (9.8) | 14.99 | 1.39 | 5.54** | 3.71 | to | 7.64 | 14.26 | 1.29 | 4.65** | 2.75 | to | 6.78 | 10.72 | 1.26 | 2.95** | 1.31 | to | 4.78 | |
| Ecuador | 149 (9.2) | 16.3 | 1.48 | 6.85** | 4.43 | to | 9.34 | 13.73 | 1.41 | 4.11** | 1.80 | to | 6.28 | 13.39 | 1.36 | 5.62** | 3.51 | to | 7.69 | |
| Norway | 107 (6.6) | 16.58 | 1.36 | 7.17** | 5.11 | to | 9.51 | 16.56 | 1.27 | 6.95** | 4.67 | to | 9.53 | 10.04 | 1.29 | 2.26* | 0.18 | to | 4.52 | |
| Iran | 216 (13.4) | 17.2 | 1.40 | 7.75** | 5.57 | to | 9.76 | 13.99 | 1.37 | 4.38** | 2.51 | to | 6.39 | 11.14 | 1.32 | 3.37** | 1.64 | to | 5.28 | |
| Australia | 130 (8.1) | 16.86 | 1.50 | 7.41** | 5.21 | to | 9.74 | 14.98 | 1.36 | 5.36** | 3.04 | to | 7.70 | 10.71 | 1.32 | 2.93** | 1.06 | to | 5.00 | |
| China | 432 (26.8) | 9.45 | 1.30 | 9.62 | 1.22 | 7.77 | 1.23 | |||||||||||||
| Gender | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Male | 644 (40) | 15.00 | 1.22 | −1.20** | −3.13 | to | −0.99 | 14.03 | 1.11 | −0.98 | −2.10 | to | 0.09 | 10.11 | 1.13 | −0.87 | −1.77 | to | 0.00 | |
| Female | 968 (60) | 17.00 | 1.20 | 15.01 | 1.12 | 10.99 | 1.12 | |||||||||||||
| Declared income | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Low | 190 (11.8) | 16.77 | 1.30 | 2.96 | −1.27 | to | 6.84 | 15.16 | 1.24 | 1.30 | −1.71 | to | 4.29 | 11.44 | 1.19 | 3.76** | 1.50 | to | 6.20 | |
| Medium-low | 358 (22.2) | 16.29 | 1.24 | 2.48 | −1.52 | to | 5.95 | 15.00 | 1.20 | 1.14 | −1.93 | to | 4.09 | 11.54 | 1.19 | 3.87** | 1.78 | to | 6.21 | |
| Medium | 808 (50.1) | 16.90 | 1.14 | 3.09 | −0.45 | to | 6.49 | 14.61 | 1.08 | 0.75 | −1.97 | to | 3.55 | 11.38 | 1.10 | 3.70** | 1.75 | to | 5.86 | |
| Medium-high | 228 (14.1) | 16.22 | 1.28 | 2.41 | −1.36 | to | 5.88 | 13.96 | 1.23 | 0.09 | −2.84 | to | 3.12 | 10.73 | 1.23 | 3.05** | 0.91 | to | 5.30 | |
| High | 28 (1.7) | 13.81 | 2.11 | 13.86 | 1.66 | 7.67 | 1.46 | |||||||||||||
| Education | ||||||||||||||||||||
| No answer | 48 (3) | 15.12 | 1.65 | −0.02 | −2.79 | to | 2.95 | 12.67 | 1.43 | 0.22 | −2.38 | to | 2.81 | 8.81 | 1.36 | −0.96 | −3.29 | to | 1.57 | |
| Primary school | 6 (0.4) | 19.54 | 4.31 | 4.40 | −2.52 | to | 13.79 | 19.87 | 3.48 | 7.42* | 1.74 | to | 14.78 | 15.42 | 4.68 | 5.65 | −2.48 | to | 16.55 | |
| Middle school | 15 (0.9) | 18.68 | 2.45 | 3.54 | −1.61 | to | 8.35 | 17.30 | 3.12 | 4.86 | −1.53 | to | 11.25 | 11.36 | 2.36 | 1.59 | −2.25 | to | 6.79 | |
| High school | 358 (22.2) | 14.74 | 1.06 | −0.40 | −2.31 | to | 1.39 | 13.60 | 0.97 | 1.16 | −0.66 | to | 2.87 | 9.96 | 0.92 | 0.20 | −1.48 | to | 1.73 | |
| Bachelor's degree | 432 (26.8) | 14.78 | 0.97 | −0.36 | −2.06 | to | 1.19 | 13.52 | 0.86 | 1.07 | −0.72 | to | 2.85 | 9.66 | 0.85 | −0.10 | −1.67 | to | 1.22 | |
| Master's degree | 514 (31.9) | 13.98 | 1.06 | −1.16 | −2.84 | to | 0.28 | 12.23 | 0.97 | −0.21 | −1.70 | to | 1.17 | 8.87 | 0.91 | −0.90 | −2.24 | to | 0.39 | |
| Ph.D. or post-graduated school | 239 (14.8) | 15.14 | 1.13 | 12.44 | 1.07 | 9.77 | 1.00 | |||||||||||||
| Employment | ||||||||||||||||||||
| No answer | 44 (2.7) | 15.52 | 1.86 | −0.32 | −3.30 | to | 3.36 | 15.23 | 1.73 | 1.08 | −1.98 | to | 4.24 | 10.52 | 1.74 | 0.33 | −2.86 | to | 3.41 | |
| Unemployed | 117 (7.3) | 16.61 | 1.39 | 0.77 | −1.12 | to | 2.74 | 15.82 | 1.31 | 1.67 | −0.16 | to | 3.52 | 10.76 | 1.33 | 0.58 | −1.27 | to | 2.55 | |
| Student | 732 (45.4) | 15.96 | 1.24 | 0.12 | −1.02 | to | 1.24 | 14.22 | 1.16 | 0.07 | −1.11 | to | 1.32 | 11.01 | 1.18 | 0.82 | −0.25 | to | 1.88 | |
| Student worker | 130 (8.1) | 16.06 | 1.41 | 0.22 | −1.73 | to | 1.97 | 13.19 | 1.29 | −0.96 | −2.76 | to | 0.91 | 10.27 | 1.29 | 0.09 | −1.68 | to | 1.72 | |
| Workers | 589 (36.5) | 15.84 | 1.18 | 14.14 | 1.06 | 10.19 | 1.11 | |||||||||||||
| Do you have children? | ||||||||||||||||||||
| No | 1351 (83.8) | 15.59 | 1.19 | −0.82 | −2.15 | to | 0.56 | 14.90 | 1.07 | 0.77 | −0.58 | to | 2.06 | 10.19 | 1.11 | −0.72 | −1.99 | to | 0.52 | |
| Yes | 261 (16.2) | 16.41 | 1.26 | 14.14 | 1.18 | 10.91 | 1.18 | |||||||||||||
| What is the larger open-air space in your home? | ||||||||||||||||||||
| No open-air spaces | 230 (14.3) | 16.90 | 1.35 | 1.03 | −0.52 | to | 2.56 | 15.78 | 1.27 | 1.49* | −0.02 | to | 3.01 | 11.04 | 1.26 | 1.06 | −0.42 | to | 2.55 | |
| Balconies and terraces | 529 (32.8) | 15.65 | 1.22 | −0.22 | −1.25 | to | 0.98 | 13.90 | 1.14 | −0.38 | −1.42 | to | 0.78 | 10.21 | 1.12 | 0.24 | −0.69 | to | 1.31 | |
| Condominium courtyard | 268 (16.6) | 15.58 | 1.26 | −0.28 | −1.59 | to | 1.28 | 14.11 | 1.12 | −0.17 | −1.47 | to | 1.22 | 10.98 | 1.15 | 1.00 | −0.14 | to | 2.32 | |
| Private garden | 585 (36.3) | 15.86 | 1.23 | 14.28 | 1.14 | 9.98 | 1.16 | |||||||||||||
| Do you know anyone infected with COVID-19? | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Yes | 509 (31.6) | 16.59 | 1.26 | 1.17* | 0.05 | to | 2.21 | 14.78 | 1.16 | 0.53 | −0.57 | to | 1.50 | 11.19 | 1.16 | 1.27* | 0.26 | to | 2.16 | |
| No | 1103 (68.4) | 15.41 | 1.16 | 14.25 | 1.06 | 9.92 | 1.10 |
Note: Results refer to the 3 regression linear models with DASS stress, DASS depression and DASS anxiety as dependent variables, linked to ANCOVA model. Covariates in the model are MAAS, Brief-COPE Avoidant and Brief-COPE Approach. To obtain the group means (ª), covariates are evaluated on the following values: MAAS = 61.16, Brief-COPE Avoidant = 26.15, Brief-COPE Approach = 35.40. Confidence intervals at 95% are obtained with bootstrap standard errors with 500 resamples. T-tests are evaluated at 5% (*p<.05), 1% (**p<.01), and 0.1% (***p<.001).