Abstract
Objective
To determine if rapid implementation of simulation training for anticipated COVID-19 tracheostomy procedures can increase physician confidence regarding procedure competency and use of enhanced personal protective equipment (PPE).
Methods
A brief simulation training exercise was designed in conjunction with the development of a COVID-19 Tracheostomy Protocol. The simulation training focused primarily on provider safety, pre and post-surgical steps and the proper use of enhanced PPE. Simulation training was performed in the simulation lab at the institution over 2 days. Pre and post self-evaluations were measured using standardized clinical competency questionnaires on a 5-point Likert Scale ranging from “No knowledge, unable to perform” up to “Highly knowledgeable and confident, independent.”
Results
Physicians self-reported a significant increase in knowledge and competency immediately after completing the training exercise. Resident physicians increased from a mean score of 3.00 to 4.67, p-value 0.0041, mean increase 1.67 (CI 95% 0.81 to 2.52). Attending physicians increased from a mean score of 2.89 to 4.67, p-value 0.0002, mean increase 1.78 (CI 95% 1.14 to 2.42). Overall, all participants increased from a mean score of 3.06 to 4.71, p-value 0.0001, mean increase 1.65 (CI 95% 1.24 to 2.05).
Discussion
Implementation of this simulation training at our institution resulted in a significant increase in physician confidence regarding the safe performance of tracheostomy surgery in COVID-19 patients.
Implications for practice
Adoption of standardized COVID-19 tracheostomy simulation training at centers treating COVID-19 patients may result in improved physician safety and enhanced confidence in anticipation of performing these procedures in real-life scenarios.
Keywords: Tracheostomy, Airway, Safety, Simulation, PPE, COVID-19, PSQI
Highlights
-
•
Rapid implementation of a COVID-19 mobile tracheostomy team is feasible in hospitals as the COVID-19 pandemic progresses.
-
•
Continuing training of a groups of core providers promotes vigilance in pandemic situations.
-
•
Simulation prior to pandemic peak is critical to ensure successful rollout.
-
•
Training should focus on proper PPE donning and doffing, given the high risk of virus aerosolization during tracheostomy.
1. Introduction
COVID-19, the disease caused by the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV2) was declared a global pandemic in March 2020 with nearly 2 million infections worldwide by April 14th, 2020. The highly contagious virus is transmitted via respiratory droplets. Critical illness develops from progression of pneumonia into acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and, thus, the need for prolonged mechanical ventilation associated with the disease. As the pandemic continues, the number of tracheostomies needed will surge in order to facilitate long-term ventilation or vent weaning. As of April 14th, our institution had 58 COVID-19 confirmed ventilated patients and 6 Persons of Interest (PUI) being ventilated. This reality prompted the need to proactively prepare for the anticipated surge in tracheostomy surgery for this patient population.
Health care workers (HCWs) are particularly at risk for nosocomial transmission of the disease due to close and continued patient exposure. However, certain procedures, such as endotracheal intubation and tracheostomy can further increase risk of transmission due to viral aerosolization. These aerosolized particles can remain airborne for up to 3 h and longer on surfaces increasing the viral transmission potential [1]. In prior coronavirus outbreaks, infectious aerosols arising from airway procedures have been implicated as key etiologic factors in spread of disease among HCWs [2].
Proper personal protective equipment (PPE) has been shown to reduce transmission of infection to HCWs during the SARS epidemic [3]. The WHO has recommended PPE to include mask, eye protection, gown, and gloves. For aerosol generating procedures, N95 respirator or equivalent should be worn. Given accounts of health care workers acquiring SARS despite wearing N95 respirators, some clinicians recommend use of powered air purifying respirators (PAPRs) [4]. During an acute infectious disease outbreak, access to appropriate PPE can be challenging due to supply-chain and availability issues. However, even with access to appropriate PPE, proper donning and doffing technique is critical in reducing potential provider exposures. There is evidence that there is substantial risk of self-contamination when doffing PPE and therefore training on the specific steps of wearing and removing PPE is crucial to mitigate HCW exposure and infection [5]. With the SARS epidemic, training programs and the use of PPE were associated with decreased risk of transmission to HCWs [3].
COVID-19 is a highly transmissible disease and risk of exposure is increased with aerosol generating procedures such as tracheostomy. Provider protection is afforded through appropriate PPE utilization, however training and user familiarity is key to proper use. Simulation training can be used to increase physician confidence and preparedness for anticipated COVID-19 tracheostomy procedures as well as use of enhanced personal protective equipment (PPE).
2. Methods
The study was considered exempt by the IRB given there was no involvement of patients or protected health information. After the development of an institution approved COVID-19 tracheostomy protocol (Fig. 1 ), a core group of faculty members and one resident worked over the course of approximately 5 days to develop a simulation program to teach faculty and residents the surgical protocol and the proper use of enhanced PPE for the procedure, specifically focusing on the use of CAPR devices (Controlled Air Purifying Respirator) – MAXAIR ® Systems (Irvine, CA) in conjunction with sterile gowning technique. (Fig. 2, Fig. 3 ).
Fig. 1.
Rush University Medical Center COVID-19 tracheostomy protocol.
Fig. 2.
CAPR® devices with charging stand allocated for dedicated use by the Otolaryngology Service.
Fig. 3.
CAPR® device in use during simulation training exercise.
All faculty and residents were given the new tracheostomy protocol to review in advance. Two otolaryngology operating room nurses participated in the exercise as well. The session began by explaining the purpose of the training. All participants were given a standardized clinical competency questionnaire to complete prior to the start of the exercise and after completion. It is based on a 5-point Likert scale asking the participant to rate their confidence in performing a tracheostomy safely on a COVID-19 patient in a real-life scenario. The scale ranged from 1 – (No knowledge, Unable to Perform) up to 5 – (Highly knowledgeable and confident, independent). (Fig. 4 ).
Fig. 4.
Clinical competency questionnaire self-reporting tool.
The training was performed on two separate days in the same week with two of the authors serving as instructors. After reviewing the steps of the protocol with the group, next there was a demonstration of the use of the PPE equipment while the instructor read a standardized script. (Fig. 5 ) Participants then were allowed time to use the equipment and ask questions about the protocol and procedures. The exercise lasted one-hour total on each day. A video was created reviewing the steps of proper donning and doffing and made available publicly for review and use by individual physicians in the future (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bQip1UAsDw8).
Fig. 5.
Protocol script for simulation training – donning and doffing enhanced PPE.
Results were tabulated and summarized. Statistical analysis was conducted using a paired Student t-test based on category (resident, attending) and for all the participants as an aggregate.
3. Results
Overall, 9 attendings, 6 residents and 2 operating room nurses participated in the training exercise. Participation was voluntary based on anticipated involvement in tracheostomy surgery or other types of upper aerodigestive procedures requiring the use of these PPE protocols. Results are summarized in Table 1 and Fig. 6 . Improvement in confidence scores was statistically significant for both resident and attending physicians. Statistical tests were not performed for the nursing group given small sample size. Overall, the entire group demonstrated an even greater significant effect. Resident physicians increased from a mean score of 3.00 to 4.67, p-value 0.0041, mean increase 1.67 (CI 95% 0.81 to 2.52). Attending physicians increased from a mean score of 2.89 to 4.67, p-value 0.0002, mean increase 1.78 (CI 95% 1.14 to 2.42). Overall, all participants increased from a mean score of 3.06 to 4.71, p-value 0.0001, mean increase 1.65 (CI 95% 1.24 to 2.05). Participants reported the session to be very helpful and increased their comfort level in surgically treating COVID-19 patients.
Table 1.
Mean clinical competency questionnaire score pre and post intervention.
Pre-simulation training | Post-Simulation Training | p-Value | N | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Residents | 3.00 | 4.67 | 0.0041 | 6 |
Attendings | 2.89 | 4.67 | 0.0002 | 9 |
Nurses | 4.00 | 5.00 | n/a | 2 |
Overall | 3.06 | 4.71 | 0.0001 | 17 |
Results of pre and post simulation training questionnaire scores. Overall results were statistically significant showing improvement in confidence levels among resident and attending surgeons.
Fig. 6.
Clinical competency questionnaire results pre and post training.
4. Discussion
Since its emergence, and as of the date of this writing, the COVID-19 pandemic has afflicted nearly 2 million people worldwide and caused over 120,000 deaths [6]. The United States has recently emerged as the epicenter for this disease, suffering from the largest number of confirmed cases and deaths. A significant number of infected patients progress to require ventilatory support or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), with reports from China quoting a rate of (9.8%–15.2%) [7]. Though early tracheostomy is to be avoided due to infectivity concerns, late tracheostomy may be indicated in a subset of these patients to facilitate ventilator weaning or discharge to long-term care facilities especially if Intensive Care Units (ICU) become overwhelmed. Airway procedures such as intubation and tracheostomy pose a unique risk to HCWs, who have been disproportionately affected by both the SARS virus in 2003, as well as the novel COVID-19 [[8], [9], [10]]. Given the patient surge both observed and expected within our medical center, it was determined that rapid implementation of a COVID-19 specific mobile tracheostomy team was indicated to provide adequate care and mitigate risk to healthcare workers.
Previous experience with the SARS outbreak in 2003 led anesthesiologists and otolaryngologists to develop tracheostomy protocols that take into account the infectivity of virus-infected patients. Early tracheostomy was uniformly recommended against during the SARS outbreak, due to significant infectivity during the early acute period, high mortality in patients who were mechanically ventilated, and lack of data regarding tracheostomy-facilitated weaning efficacy [11]. In general, open tracheostomy was preferred over percutaneous means, due to concern for aerosolization with bronchoscopy, multiple disconnections from ventilator circuit, multiple dilations entering the airway, and high positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) requirements [[11], [12], [13]]. Personal protective equipment (PPE) recommendations range from N95 masking and face shields, to CAPR units with complete body coverage and postoperative showering [11,12,14,15]. Most authors from this era recommend PAPR/CAPR units for high-risk aerosol generating procedures (AGPs) such as tracheostomy, in conjunction with gloves, surgical gown, and shoe covers. Preparatory and protocol-related recommendations included consolidation of necessary materials into a sterile pack or cart, recruitment of most experienced surgeons to perform efficient tracheostomy, frequent and thorough simulation, and preoperative communication – as intraoperative communication can be impaired by PPE [11,14]. Intraoperative techniques to minimize aerosolization include complete paralysis throughout the case, ventilator cessation prior to entering the airway, avoidance of diathermy once airway is incised, and restriction to in-line suctioning only [11,14]. Finally, during the SARS outbreak, most tracheostomy procedures were performed in a negative-pressure ICU setting, rather than in the operating room. This minimized patient transport and unnecessary disconnections from the ventilator circuit [11].
Lessons learned from the SARS outbreak have been appropriately extrapolated in dealing with the current COVID-19 pandemic. Less emphasis has been placed on ICU bedside tracheostomy, with some groups advocating for the operating room being the primary location for tracheostomy, and others leaving this decision to individual hospitals [10]. Operative indications remain similar to that of SARS patients, though a stronger push toward delayed tracheostomy, frequently past 14 days, is evident in initial reports. Indications for timing of the procedure have been postulated as patients with greater than 14 days since onset, high likelihood of recovery, and ventilator weaning as the primary goal [8]. Percutaneous tracheostomy is a consideration in patients with suitable anatomy, if bronchoscopy and multiple ventilator disconnections can be avoided [8,16]. Technical advances since the SARS outbreak include maintenance of lower respiratory isolation by pushing the endotracheal tube lower and re-inflating the cuff prior to incision of the trachea [10,16]. This, in-conjunction with cessation of ventilation and mild cuff hyperinflation further minimizes risk of aerosolization upon entering the trachea. Postoperatively, the tracheostomy cuff is kept inflated, with delayed first tracheostomy tube change and early application of a humidity and moisture exchange (HME) system following liberation from the ventilator [8].
With regard to choice of PPE system when performing tracheostomy, most authors have recommended the use of powered air purifiers. In-vitro assigned protection factor testing demonstrates superiority of PAPR/CAPR systems at filtering particulate matter, however it has not yet been elucidated whether this translates to a clinically-relevant reduction in risk to providers [17]. Manufacturers of the CAPR system offer additional equipment including hoods and shrouds, capable of covering the head, neck, and trunk of proceduralists. Drawbacks to the powered systems include impairment of communication, concern for sterility of the surgical field, fogging of face shields, limited use of headlights, and frequent head collisions with the uninitiated [8]. Whatever system is chosen at a given institution, the importance of simulation and practice cannot be overstated in overcoming such impairments prior to surgery in a COVID-19 infected patient.
At our own institution, we assembled, developed, and implemented a mobile tracheostomy team over the course of a 4-day period. This accelerated timeline was realized in response to an observed surge in critically ill COVID-19 patients admitted to our institution, as well as to develop a framework for other institutions to employ similarly rapid implementation. In addition, previous authors during the SARS epidemic have demonstrated that graduated rollout of operating room PPE for high-risk procedures was associated with continued infection of healthcare workers until the time of complete implementation [12]. Based upon the findings and recommendations of previous authors, we developed the following timeline. Day 1 saw the realization of a tracheostomy workgroup, which included representatives from otolaryngology, critical care, anesthesiology, and operating room nursing. This group met regularly during days 1 and 2 to develop indications, setting, protocols, and both electronic and physical ICU tracheostomy bundles. Days 3 and 4 facilitated training and simulation for all parties, overseen by surgeon super-users, infection control practitioners, and occupational health and safety representatives.
Experienced airway surgeons were paired with senior resident surgeons to balance efficiency of procedure with maintenance of redundant experienced parties. Pre- and post-training surveys demonstrated significant improvements in comfort with the donning/doffing and tracheostomy protocols, underscoring the importance of simulation and rehearsal when planning such implementations. Previous authors have used similar models to assess otolaryngologist comfort pre/post simulation, and found that otolaryngologists are more likely to accurately predict their pre-intervention knowledge than are primary care providers [18,19]. In addition, decay in knowledge and comfort appears to occur more slowly in otolaryngology providers, when topics are within their field of practice. Despite this, frequent simulation and reassessment is critical in maintaining proper technique and vigilance.
5. Conclusions
COVID-19 presents a unique set of challenges and concerns regarding high-risk upper airway procedures, most notably tracheostomy in critically ill patients. Rapidly implemented simulation training was demonstrated to successfully increase confidence levels among resident and attending surgeons. This protocol can serve as a blueprint for any medical center being faced with the scenario of potentially having to perform tracheostomy in COVID-19 patients.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Declaration of competing interest
None.
Acknowledgements
Rush University Medical Center Simulation Laboratory.
References
- 1.van Doremalen N., Bushmaker T., Morris D.H., Holbrook M.G., Gamble A., Williamson B.N. Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 as compared to SARS-CoV-1. N Engl J Med. 2020 March 17 doi: 10.1056/NEJMc2004973. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 2.Hui D.S. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS): lessons learnt in Hong Kong. J Thorac Dis. 2013;5(Suppl. 2):S122–S126. doi: 10.3978/j.issn.2072-1439.2013.06.18. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 3.Moore D., Gamage B., Bryce E., Copes R., Yassi A. Protecting health care workers from SARS and other respiratory pathogens: organizational and individual factors that affect adherence to infection control guidelines. Am J Infect Control. 2005;33:88–96. doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2004.11.003. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 4.Wax R.S., Christian M.D. Practical recommendations for critical care and anesthesiology teams caring for novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) patients. Can J Anaesth. 2020 doi: 10.1007/s12630-020-01591-x. published online Feb 12. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 5.Chughtai A.A., Chen X., Macintyre C.R. Risk of self-contamination during doffing of personal protective equipment. Am J Infect Control. 2018. Dec;46(12):1329–1334. doi: 10.1016/j.ajic.2018.06.003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 6.Situation report – 84. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) World Health Organization (WHO); 13 April 2020. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 7.Wu Z, McGoogan JM. Characteristics of and important lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China: summary of a report of 72 314 cases from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention [published online February 24, 2020]. JAMA DOI: 10.1001/jama.2020.2648. [DOI] [PubMed]
- 8.Givi B., Schiff B.A., Chinn S.B. Safety recommendations for evaluation and surgery of the head and neck during the COVID-19 pandemic [published online ahead of print, 2020 Mar 31] JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2020 doi: 10.1001/jamaoto.2020.0780. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 9.Tran K., Cimon K., Severn M., Pessoa-Silva C.L., Conly J. Aerosol generating procedures and risk of transmission of acute respiratory infections to healthcare workers: a systematic review. PLoS One. 2012;7(4) doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0035797. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 10.Pichi B., Mazzola F., Bonsembiante A. CORONA-steps for tracheotomy in COVID-19 patients: a staff-safe method for airway management [published online ahead of print, 2020 Apr 6] Oral Oncol. 2020 doi: 10.1016/j.oraloncology.2020.104796. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 11.Tay J.K., Khoo M.L., Loh W.S. Surgical considerations for tracheostomy during the COVID-19 pandemic: lessons learned from the severe acute respiratory syndrome outbreak [published online ahead of print, 2020 Mar 31] JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2020 doi: 10.1001/jamaoto.2020.0764. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 12.Chee V.W., Khoo M.L., Lee S.F., Lai Y.C., Chin N.M. Infection control measures for operative procedures in severe acute respiratory syndrome–related patients. Anesthesiology. 2004;100(6):1394–13986. doi: 10.1097/00000542-200406000-00010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 13.Tien H.C., Chughtai T., Jogeklar A., Cooper A.B., Brenneman F. Elective and emergency surgery in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) Can J Surg. 2005;48(1):71–74. [PMID: 15757044] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 14.Wei W.I., Tuen H.H., Ng R.W., Lam L.K. Safe tracheostomy for patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Laryngoscope. 2003;113(10):1777–1779. doi: 10.1097/00005537-200310000-00022. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 15.Ho O.Y., Lam H.C., Woo J.K., van Hasselt C.A. Tracheostomy during SARS. J Otolaryngol. 2004;33(6):393–396. doi: 10.2310/7070.2004.00393. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 16.Vargas M., Servillo G. Improving staff safety during tracheostomy in COVID-19 patients [published online ahead of print, 2020 Apr 9] Head Neck. 2020 doi: 10.1002/hed.26163. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 17.Institute of Medicine . National Academies Press; 2015. The use and effectiveness of powered air purifying respirators in health care: workshop summary. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 18.Oyewumi M., Brandt M.G., Carrillo B. Objective evaluation of otoscopy skills among family and community medicine, pediatric, and otolaryngology residents. J Surg Educ. 2016;73(1):129–135. doi: 10.1016/j.jsurg.2015.07.011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 19.Ng V., Plitt J., Biffar D. Development of a novel ultrasound-guided peritonsillar abscess model for simulation training. West J Emerg Med. 2018;19(1):172–176. doi: 10.5811/westjem.2017.11.36427. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]