Figure 1.

Scenarios of the experiment. (a) Baseline test: the dog is asked to select a familiar toy among other familiar toys upon hearing its name; (b) Exclusion condition: the dog is asked to select a new toy among familiar toys upon hearing a new word; (c) Social condition: the owner shows a new toy to the dog and plays with it while naming it; (d) Choice test: the dog is asked to select one of two toys to which it was exposed either in the exclusion condition or in the social condition.