TABLE 1.
Summary of current experimental treatments inducing autophagy during M. tuberculosis infection.
| Drug | Model | Mode | References |
| Small Molecule Enhancers of Rapamycin | M. bovis BCG infection of primary human macrophages | Induce autophagy independently of mTOR | Floto et al., 2007 |
| Rifampicin | Mtb infection of human differentiated monocytes | Increased autolysosome formation, directly antimycobacterial | Genestet et al., 2018 |
| Linezolid | Mtb infection of human differentiated monocytes | Increased autophagosomes production, directly antimycobacterial | Genestet et al., 2018 |
| Bedaquiline | Mtb infection of human differentiated monocytes | Increased autophagosomes production, directly antimycobacterial | Genestet et al., 2018 |
| Nitazoxanide | Mtb infection of human differentiated monocytes. M. leprae infection of mice | Increased autophagy by inhibition of NADPH quinone oxidoreductase 1 leading to mTOR inhibition by TSC2 | Lam et al., 2012; Bailey et al., 2017 |
| Baicalin | Mtb infection of mouse macrophages | Induce autophagy via the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome activation via the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB, reduction of proinflammatory cytokines | Lin et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2017 |
| Vitamin D | Mtb/HIV co-infection model of primary human macrophages | Cathelicidin dependent induction of autophagy | Liu et al., 2007; Martineau et al., 2007; Yuk et al., 2009; Jo, 2010; Campbell and Spector, 2012b |
| 4-phenylbutyrate | Mtb infection of human monocytes | Induction of LL-37 promoting autophagy via P2RX7 receptor, increasing free Ca2+ and activation of AMPK and PtdIns3K pathway. | Rekha et al., 2015 |
| Gefitinib | Mtb infection of murine bone marrow-derived macrophages | STAT3 dependent cytokine responses, increasing lysosomal trafficking | Stanley et al., 2014; Sogi et al., 2017 |
| Carbamazepine | Mtb infection of human-derived macrophages or murine alveolar macrophages. M. marinum zebrafish model of infection. MDR Mtb infection of C57BL/6 mice | Induce autophagy by blocking myoinositol uptake, decreasing phosphatidylinositol, and activating AMP kinase in an mTOR independent manner. | Schiebler et al., 2015; Juárez et al., 2016 |
| Valproic acid | Mtb infection of human-derived macrophages or murine alveolar macrophages | Increases colocalization of LC3 with Mtb | Schiebler et al., 2015; Juárez et al., 2016 |
| Loperamide | Mtb infection of human-derived macrophages or murine alveolar macrophages | Increases colocalization of LC3 with Mtb and reduces TNF-α production | Juárez et al., 2016 |
| Simvastatin | Mtb infection of C57BL/6 mice | Reduction of membrane cholesterol levels promotes phagosomal maturation and autophagy | Parihar et al., 2013 |
| Metformin | Mtb infection of C57BL/6 mice | Induction of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species, AMPK activation, and autophagy induction | Singhal et al., 2014; Restrepo, 2016 |
| Trehalose | Mtb/M. avium/M. fortuitum infection of human differentiated monocytes | Increase autophagy flux through activation of ptdIns3P by activation of PIKFYVE | Sarkar et al., 2007; Sharma et al., 2020 |
| Mycobacterial PILAM | Mtb infection of murine macrophages | Induction of autophagy and pro-inflammatory cytokines, enhanced colocalization of Mtb with phagolysosomes | Shui et al., 2011; Singh et al., 2019 |
| Nordi-hydroguaiaretic acid | Avirulent Mtb infection of human differentiated monocytes | Directly antimycobacterial, induce autophagosome formation and colocalization with Mtb | Guzmán-Beltrán et al., 2016 |
| Lactoferricin peptides | M. avium infection of murine bone marrow macrophages | Increased autophagosome formation | Silva et al., 2017b |