TABLE 2.

Summary of repurposed autophagy targeting host-directed therapies against NTMs.

Drug	Model	Role in Autophagy	Reference
Azithromycin	M. abscessus infection of primary human macrophages and C57BL/6 mice	Blocks lysosomal acidification, impairing autophagosome degradation, directly antimycobacterial on susceptible strains	Renna et al., 2011
Carvacrol	Directly antimycobacterial against M. abscessus, M. chelonae, M. fortuitum, M. mucogenicum, M. avium sbsp paratuberculosis, and M. smegmatis	MEK inhibition of mTOR resulting in increased autophagy. Inhibition of autophagy during adipogenic differentiation.	Nowotarska et al., 2017; Potoènjak et al., 2018; Spalletta et al., 2018; Marini et al., 2019
Tetracycline	Directly antimycobacterial against M. abscessus, M. chelonae, and M. fortuitum	mTOR inhibition	Brüning et al., 2014; Kaushik et al., 2019; Shoen et al., 2019
Thioridazine	In vitro clearance of M. avium from Thp-1 macrophages, possible efflux pump inhibitor	Upregulation of AMPK activity leading to autophagy induction.	Rodrigues et al., 2008; Deshpande et al., 2016; Seervi et al., 2018; Chu et al., 2019
Mefloquine	Directly antimycobacterial against M. avium complex in culture. In vivo clearance in mice	Highly induced formation of autophagosomes in neuroblastoma cells	Bermudez et al., 1999, 2012; Shin et al., 2012
Clonidine/Verapamil/Minoxidil	Decreased disease progression in in vitro, fly, and zebrafish models of infection	Clearance of soluble huntingtin exon 1 during M. leprae infection by autophagy	Williams et al., 2008