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. 2021 Jan 14;11:607328. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.607328

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Copyright © 2021 Chambers, Rees, Cronin, Nair, Jones and Thornton

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Macrophage polarization. Overview of the polarization spectrum of macrophages highlighting stimuli, surface marker expression, cytokine and chemokine secretion and functions of M1 and M2 polarized macrophages. AR, adenosine receptor; CCL, chemokine (C-C motif) ligand; CXCL, chemokine (C-X-C) ligand; IFNγ, interferon-gamma; GC, glucocorticoids; IC, immune complexes; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; MHC, major histocompatibility complex; TGFb, transforming growth factor-beta; TNFα, tumour necrosis factor alpha; TLR, Toll-like receptor; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor.