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. 2021 Jan 28;12:658. doi: 10.1038/s41467-021-20948-4

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — a Conceptual illustration of the electroosmotic penetration/extraction for efficient drug delivery and analysis of ISF. The flow direction from anode to cathode is the case when the porous microneedles are modified with a negatively charged hydrogel. b Photographs depict a structural overview of the combination of the biobattery (four cells connected in series) and the porous microneedle.