Table 5. Joint angle analysis for ROM and kinematics.

ROM data: nonparametric Bland–Altman median bias and limits of agreement (1.45 IQR). Kinematics data: mean and standard deviation of root mean square error (RMSE), maximum absolute error (MAE) and Spearman correlation coefficient (ρ). Joint angles are reported for lumbar, lower thoracic, upper thoracic, cervical, and an overall mean. Reliability Analysis: intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), standardised error measurement (SEM), and minimum detectable change (MDC). The movements from left to right were flexion, extension, lateral flexion, cervical rotation, and cervical flexion/extension.

		Flex	Ext	Lat Flex	Cer Rot	Cer F/E
	bias ± LOA	1.0 ± 1.7°	0.3 ± 1.6°	−1.0 ± 6.4°	–	–
	RMSE	1.9 ± 0.4°	1.4 ± 0.7°	2.4 ± 1.0°	–	–
	MAE	4.4 ± 1.0°	2.9 ± 1.6°	5.4 ± 1.8°	–	–
	ρ	0.99 ± 0.01	0.99 ± 0.01	0.99 ± 0.01	–	–
	bias ± LOA	0.3 ± 1.5°	0.1 ± 1.2°	0.3 ± 3.6°	–	–
	RMSE	1.3 ± 0.6°	1.4 ± 0.5°	1.5 ± 0.5°	–	–
	MAE	2.6 ± 0.8°	2.8 ± 1.1°	3.8 ± 1.2°	–	–
	ρ	0.98 ± 0.03	0.97 ± 0.04	0.98 ± 0.03	–	–
	bias ± LOA	0.0 ± 1.9°	0.6 ± 1.3°	0.8 ± 5.6°	–	–
	RMSE	2.7 ± 1.2°	2.8 ± 1.3°	2.9 ± 1.3°	–	–
	MAE	4.6 ± 1.3°	4.2 ± 1.6°	6.5 ± 2.2°	–	–
	ρ	0.98 ± 0.01	0.98 ± 0.03	0.48 ± 0.53	–	–
	bias ± LOA	–	–	–	0.0 ± 2.3°	0.4 ± 1.9°
	RMSE	–	–	–	1.7 ± 0.8°	2.6 ± 0.9°
	MAE	–	–	–	3.7 ± 1.2°	6.1 ± 1.0°
	ρ	–	–	–	0.92 ± 0.09	0.99 ± 0.01
Mean	bias ± LOA	0.5 ± 1.7°	0.3 ± 1.5°	0.2 ± 4.8°	0.0 ± 2.3°	0.4 ± 1.9°
	RMSE	2.0 ± 1.0°	1.8 ± 1.1°	2.3 ± 1.1°	1.7 ± 0.8°	2.6 ± 0.9°
	MAE	3.9 ± 1.3°	3.3 ± 1.6°	5.2 ± 2.0°	3.7 ± 1.2°	6.1 ± 1.0°
	ρ	0.99 ± 0.02	0.98 ± 0.03	0.82 ± 0.38	0.92 ± 0.09	0.99 ± 0.01
RA	ICC	0.998	0.989	0.952	0.986	0.993
	ICC(LB UB)	(0.997 0.998)	(0.985 0.992)	(0.942 0.961)	(0.981 0.990)	(0.981 0.998)
	SEM	0.8°	0.7°	2.1°	1.1°	0.9°
	MDC	2.1°	2.0°	5.7°	2.9°	2.4°