Table 1.
Conventional and Nanomedical Treatments for Major Viruses
| Viruses | Characteristics of Viruses | Disease | Medications for the Treatment | Nano Technology Applied Medications: Antiviral Mechanism |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| IAV and IBV | Sudden high fever, headache, and muscle pain Antigenic drift | Influenza (flu) | Oseltamivir, zanamivir, peramivir, baloxavir marboxil | STP702 (FluquitTM):158 RNA interference Titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles:159 Photocatalytic inactivation of the virus Oseltamivir-modified silver nanoparticles:160 Inhibition the activity of H1N1 influenza virus through ROS-mediated signaling pathways |
| EBOV | A lethal viral hemorrhagic fever | Ebola virus disease (EVD) or Ebola hemorrhagic fever (EHF) |
None | TKM-130803:161 RNA interference |
| HIV1 and HIV2 | Targeting CD4-positive T cells to attack the immune system, resulting in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) | AIDS | 24 approved drugs belonging to the class of Nucleoside Reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), The non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), integrase inhibitors, Tat TAR interaction inhibitors | Indinavir loaded Solutol® HS15 nanocapsules:162 Enhancing drug distribution DermaVir:163 DNA-based therapeutic HIV vaccine Doravirine (MK-1439):164 Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors VivaGel®:165 Blocking the interaction between viral spike proteins and the human cell proteins |
| HSV1 and HSV2 | Herpes simplex | Herpes | Acyclovir Valacyclovir Famciclovir Herpes DNA polymerase inhibitors Helicase primase inhibitors |
Acyclovir-loaded nanoparticles:158,159 Enhancing drug distribution Silver nanoparticles:160 inhibit HSV-1 infections by blocking the attachment VivaGel®:161 Blocking the interaction between viral spike proteins and the human cell proteins |
| HBV | No subjective symptoms | Hepatitis B | Lamivudine Adefovir Dipivoxil Entecavir Telbivudine Tenofovir disoproxil Tenofovir alafenamide |
Interferon (IFN)-α:170 inhibit HBV replication Pegylated IFN (Pegasys®):171 unknown Lamivudine (Epivir®):172 inhibit the reverse transcriptase of HBV Adefovir (Hepsera®):173 blocking reverse transcriptase Entecavir (Baraclude®):174 inhibits reverse transcription, DNA replication and transcription in the viral replication process Telbivudine (Tyzeka®):175 impair DNA replication Tenofovir (Viread®):176 inhibit the reverse transcriptase of HBV |
| HCV | A high genetic diversity | Hepatitis C | Peginterferon α-2a (Pegasys®) Peginterferon α-2b (Pegasys®) | PEGylated IFN and Ribavirin:177 Enhancing Ribavirin’s antiviral effect |
| HuNoV | Nausea, vomiting, watery diarrhea, and abdominal pain | Norovirus infection | None | Gold/copper sulfide (AuCuS) core-shell Nanoparticles:178 degradation of the RNA and destruction of the capsid |
| SARS-CoV-2 | Fever, cough, and difficulty breathing | COVID-19 | HCQ and CQ, Lopinavir/ritonavir, Umifenovir, Camostat mesylate (TMPRSS2 inhibitor), Tocilizumab, Meplazumab | Nano-formulating dexamethasone:179 anti-oedema activity and anti-fibrotic effects |