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Journal of Food Science and Technology logoLink to Journal of Food Science and Technology
. 2020 Jun 24;58(2):720–730. doi: 10.1007/s13197-020-04588-y

Evaluation of Tahiti lemon shell flour (Citrus latifolia Tanaka) as a fat mimetic

Lady Vanessa Jiménez Nempeque 1, Ángela Patricia Gómez Cabrera 1, Jhoana Yamilet Colina Moncayo 1,✉
PMCID: PMC7847908  PMID: 33568866

Abstract

The citrus juice industry produces a significant amount of peel residues; it can represent between 18 and 30% of the total weight of the fruit. In recent years, there has been an increase in its use as a source of fiber. The objective of this study was to evaluate the Tahiti lemon peel flour (Citrus latifolia Tanaka) as a fat mimetic (10, 20 and 30%) in a cake. The chemical and nutritional characterization of the lemon peel, the determination of the drying conditions to obtain the flour of the lemon peel, and the physical, chemical, and nutritional characterization of the lemon peel flour and cake was evaluated. A high content of dietary fiber for Tahiti lemon peel (89.15 ± 0.00 g/100 g) and flour (85.30 ± 0.06 g/100 g) was obtained. For the drying conditions to obtain the lemon peel flour, a temperature of 60 °C during 16 h was selected. The cake with greater acceptability had a 10% fat replacement with lemon peel flour, which presented a reduction of 19.16% in the fat content and an approximately double increase in the dietary fiber content. This study suggests that the flour obtained from Tahiti lemon flavedo can be used as a mimetic of fat in cakes, contributing to the nutritional characteristics of the food in which it is included.

Keywords: Tahiti lemon, Flour, Agroindustrial waste, Lemon peel, Fat mimetic

Introduction

In developing countries more than 30% of fresh food may be lost post-harvest (FAO 2012). Post-harvest losses in turn, result in quantitative, qualitative, and economic losses (Hodges et al. 2011). In Colombia, 64% of food is lost during the stages of production, storage, and industrial processing. Agroindustrial waste represents an environmental, public health and economic problem, mainly due to its inadequate management and its little or no use, creating an imminent need to search for alternatives for the use and recovery of these (Londoño-Londoño et al. 2010). Only in the wholesale power station of Antioquia, about 45.2 cubic meters of waste come from of fruits and vegetables. Regarding residues of Tahiti lemon peel, a production of up to approximately 25.889 tons can be inferred, if we consider that about 30% of the weight of the lemon is made up of peels (Londoño et al. 2012; Londoño-Londoño et al. 2010). Main producing countries are expected to report significant increase in productions by over 1.2 million tons in the next five years (> 700 000 t in the northern hemisphere and > 550 000 t in the southern hemisphere) (Ciriminna et al. 2020).

Peels are composed mainly of water, soluble sugars, fiber, organic acids, amino acids, minerals, essential oils, flavonoids, and vitamins (Londoño et al. 2012). Fiber-rich by products, like the products of citrus peels, may be incorporated into food products as inexpensive, non-caloric bulking agents for partial replacement of flour, fat or sugar, as enhancers of water and oil retention and to improve emulsion or oxidative stabilities. However, the percentage of fiber that may be added is finite, because it can cause undesirable changes to the color and texture of foods (Elleuch et al. 2011).

The term "fat substitutes" is used to describe a wide variety of both natural and synthetic substances, whose objective is to replace triglycerides in alimentary matrices and in some cases imitate the properties of fats, either partially or totally, with the order to reduce its fat and caloric content, at the same time as it seeks to generate the least possible variation in its sensory qualities (Napier 1997). The use of agroindustrial residues as fat substitutes is considered a promising alternative, previous studies on this subject have been successful, fiber obtained from orange by-products has been evaluated as a fat substitute in ice cream (De Moraes et al. 2013), also fiber from carrots and lemons as a fat replacer in hamburger meat (Demirok et al. 2015), and melon and watermelon peel fiber as a substitute for fat in cake (Al-Sayed Hanan and Ahmed Abdelrahman 2013).

In recent years, there has been an increase in people choosing to lead a healthy lifestyle and improve eating habits, so consumers are more and more demanding when purchasing products for consumption, leading to a greater demand for products that can be considered healthy, such as those with reduced in fats and sugars, or with a high fiber content.

Fat-reduced foods are gaining importance within the market of functional foods, because the consumers are more conscientious about the relationship between the fat intake and obesity, and since obesity has been related to a variety of health problems, such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and cancer (Luoa et al. 2019). The fat reduction in baked foods may lead to the loss of some important quality attributes, such as texture, mouthfeel, and flavor, because it improves their volume and softness, due to a greater incorporation of air during the creaming process, and to the inhibition of the gas-bubble coalescence, leading to a finer and softer structure of the crumb (Elleuch et al. 2011).

The objective of this research is to evaluate the Tahiti lemon peel flour (Citrus latifolia Tanacka) as a fat mimetic in a cake, which will give an added value to this waste generating a lower environmental impact. The effects of various fat replacement levels (10, 20 and 30%) on the quality of cakes (determined by their proximate composition, texture, color, and general sensory acceptance) were investigated.

Materials and methods

Material and sample preparation

Tahiti lemon peel residues were obtained from producers from the municipality of Anolaima, Colombia and the plant fruit processor, located in the sector of Alamos—Bogotá, Colombia. These residues were carefully selected to remove peels with damages and defects. The excess pulp from the juice extraction process was removed. The peels were disinfected in a solution of a compound formulated with 40% alkyl and benzyl radicals in the form of a dried pearl, encapsulated in 60% chelated urea type G.R.A.S. (200 ppm, TIMSEN). The peels were cut into pieces of approximately 15 × 10 mm and the terpenes were removed.

Terpene extraction was performed with a leaching process; it eliminates the bitter compounds present in the lemon peel. Three solvents were evaluated: water, 4% sodium bicarbonate and ethanol (unpublished data), concluding that the bicarbonate was more efficient. A solution of 4% sodium bicarbonate at a temperature of 90 °C was used as a solvent, four consecutive washes were performed, leaving the peel immersed for 20 min, then removing the excess solution and repeating the process. Finally, a rinse was performed with water at 90 °C (Díaz et al. 2014).

Drying conditions of the lemon peel flour

To determine the drying conditions, a factorial type 22 experimental design was used, with a central point and a replica, where the factors were time (16, 20 y 24 h) and temperature (60, 85 y 110 ºC), the variable responded to the percentage of humidity.

The drying of the peels was done through convection, using an oven (Memmert GmbH model 100-800, Germany).

A grinding process was carried out using a hammer mill to reduce the particle size. The obtained powder was screened using an ASTM E 11-61 sieve (No. 40) of 420 µm to obtain a homogeneous particle size.

After sieving the lemon peel flour, the sample was placed in hermetic plastic bags, which were stored inside a desiccator at room temperature (~ 20 ºC) until analysis and use for the preparation of cakes.

Characterization of the lemon peel and the lemon peel flour

Chemical analysis

Vitamin C, pH, dietary fiber, and total sugars were determined using official methods of analysis (Association of Official Analytical Collaboration (AOAC) 2012). All measurements were performed in triplicate.

Proximate composition analysis

The protein, ash, moisture, and fat contents were determined using the following official methods of analysis: 950.36, 923.03, 935.29, and 922.06, respectively (AOAC 2012). All measurements were performed in triplicate. Total carbohydrates were calculated by difference.

Color

The color of flour was evaluated by a CR-400 colorimeter (Konica Minolta, Tokyo, Japan) in the CIELAB colorimetric system, in which L*, a*, and b* represents lightness, redness (green to red), and yellowness (blue to yellow) respectively. The colorimeter was calibrated by using a standard ceramic white plate before use, and calibration should be done under the same temperature condition as measurement. All the measurements were performed in triplicate.

Water retention capacity (WRC)

0.5 g of lemon peel flour were weighed and added in a centrifuge tube with 10 mL of water, it was left to rest during 30 min to centrifuge to 2,000 rpm for 30 min. Finally, the solid waste was dehydrated to 105 °C for 24 h and then using equation (Torres et al. 2016). All measurements were performed in triplicate at room temperature (~ 20 ºC).

WRC=WRg-DRgDRg 1

where DR is dry residue weight, WR is wet residue weight.

Swelling capacity (SC)

2.5 g of lemon peel flour was weighed in a graduated cylinder, then 30 mL of water were added and stirred for 1 min. The sample was left to rest for 24 h at room temperature. The final volume of the sample was measured. To obtain the result, Eq. 2 was used. All measurements were performed in triplicate at room temperature (~ 20 ºC).

SC=VfmLSampleweightg 2

where Vf is final volume.

Solubility

The solubility is the speed and degree to which the components of dust particles dissolve in water (Torres et al. 2016). It was determined with the Eq. 3 and using data obtained in WRC. All measurements were performed in triplicate at room temperature (~ 20 ºC).

%Solubility=Sampleweightg-DRgSampleweightg 3

where DR is dry residue weight.

Formulation and preparation of cakes

The cake formulations investigated in this work are shown in Table 1. Lemon peel flour was used for replacing fat at concentrations of 10, 20 and 30% (According to preliminary results: 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% substitution were tested).

Table 1.

Cake formulations with replacement of fat by lemon shell flour

Ingredient Control 10% 20% 30%
Wheat flour 125 125 125 125
Eggs 135 135 135 135
Sugar 80 80 80 80
Lemon shell flour – 8.5 17.0 25.5
Vegetable oil 85.0 76.5 59.5 34.0
Water 75 109 143 177
Baking powder 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6
Salt 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
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Amounts in grams

For cake preparation, wheat flour, sugar, salt and baking powder were mixed in a Hobart N-50 mixer (Hobart Manufacturing Company Ltd., London,UK), by mixing them for 10 min at speed 2 (124 rpm). Egg yolks, water and oil and the previously hydrated lemon peel flour with 4 mL of water/g of flour were then added and mixed for 5 min at speed 124 rpm. Subsequently, the whipped egg whites until stiff were added slowly to avoid the loss of incorporated air.

The cake batter samples were transferred into cake pans and baked at 180 °C for 45 min using a convection oven (JAVAR, Bogota, Colombia). After baking, the cakes could cool during 25 min, be removed from pans, cooled for 2 h, packaged in polypropylene bags, and stored at room temperature (~ 20 °C) for their evaluation during storage. Each formulation was baked in triplicate.

Characterization of the cake

Proximate composition analysis

Proximate composition analysis and dietary fiber content was determined following the methodologies proposed by the AOAC (2012). All measurements were performed in triplicate.

Texture analysis

The textural properties of the cakes were investigated by conducting a texture analysis. A texture analyzer (TA-TXX Plus Texture Analyzer, LFRA model Brookfield, Germany) was used. Crustless cake cubes samples (25 mm × 25 mm × 25 mm) were compressed to 5% of their original volume using an aluminum probe (P/80) at a test speed of 1 mm/s. A trigger force of 5 g was used. Hardness (gf) and adhesiveness were determined (Gómez and Colina 2019). The measurements were performed in triplicate.

Sensory analysis

The Check All That Apply (CATA) technique with 60 consumers between 18 and 50 years of age was used. Approximately 58% of the participants were male and 42% female. The CATA questionnaire included 21 statements and for each statement an opposing one was presented, with the aim of obtaining trustworthy results (Gómez and Colina 2019). Responses that marked both the statement and its opposite were discarded. The sentences were randomly presented, with the generation of four questionnaires organized in different forms to avoid any mistake related to the order (Ares et al. 2014).

Statistical analysis

Statistical analyses were performed using analysis of variance, followed by Duncan multiple range test at 95% confidence level (p < 0.05). The results are expressed as mean plus/minus standard deviation.

To analyze the data obtained by the CATA method, it first was established if the judges had detected significant differences between samples for each term, which was based on Cochran´s Q test. Subsequently, Factorial Correspondence Analysis (FCA) was performed to obtain a two-dimensional graphic of the samples. This analysis provided a graphic in which the differences and similarities between the samples and the characteristic attributes were established.

Results and discussion

Drying conditions of the Tahiti lemon peel flour

Table 2 shows the drying conditions set out in the experimental design, and the final moisture obtained for the lemon peel flour.

Table 2.

Drying conditions and final moisture of lemon peel flour

Time (h) Temperature (°C) Moisture (g/100 g)
16 60 8.4981
16 60 8.1303
16 110 4.0942
16 110 4.0812
20 85 4.4573
20 85 4.3066
24 60 7.6849
24 60 7.8363
24 110 3.7225
24 110 4.0233
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The Kruskal Wallis test was performed, for moisture-temperature and moisture-time where it was obtained that the temperature has a significant effect on the moisture (p = 0.0000) and the time not (p = 0.2482) with a 95% of significance.

Using the Duncan multiple range test for the temperature, we can see that all are different, while for the time indicates that all treatments are the same, so the conditions chosen for processing are a temperature of 60 °C for a time of 16 h, this is because it is the condition in which a final humidity close to the desired one is achieved (< 15%), while being the one with the least processing time, which translates in minimization of costs due to energy consumption and processing times.

A yield of lemon peel flour of 23.5% was obtained. Although it was low with compare to the findings of Dias et al. (2020) for orange peel (50.39 ± 1.71%), it should be taken into account that the collection is made from waste that is not used, which is beneficial for the juice industries, as they can provide added value. The yield of fruit peels is varying with the cultivar, maturity level and the processing conditions (e.g., drying method, drying temperature, particle size) (Garcia-Amezquita et al. 2018). In addition, it is important to consider that lemon residues constitute about 30% of the fruit, which have a high environmental impact, since they go directly to landfills or water sources. In the Netherlands, the efforts to have waste citrus peel recognized from a regulatory viewpoint as a raw material, and no longer as waste, have been successful (Ciriminna et al. 2020). Therefore, the industry is recommended to use it as an ingredient in food.

Chemical and nutritional characterization

The chemical and nutritional characterization of lemon peel and the lemon peel flour are presented in Table 3. Significant differences were observed (p < 0.05) in protein content, dietary fiber, sugars, vitamin C and pH, where an increase in protein content, dietary fiber and pH is observed, while sugars and vitamin C decrease.

Table 3.

Chemical and nutritional characterization of Tahiti lime shell and the lime shell flour

Component/property Lime shell Lime shell flour
Moisture (g/100 g) 70.50 ± 0.33a 8.14 ± 0.00b
Protein (g/100 g) 0.88 ± 0.09a 1.57 ± 0.30b
Fat (g/100 g) 0.31 ± 0.06a 0.29 ± 0.04a
Carbohydrates (g/100 g) 95.12 ± 0.04a 94.65 ± 0.10a
 Dietary fiber (g/100 g) 89.15 ± 0.00a 92.86 ± 0.06b
 Sugars (g/100 g) 5.97 ± 0.00a 1.80 ± 0.02b
Ash (g/100 g) 3.69 ± 0.03a 3.48 ± 0.09a
Vitamin C (mg/100 g) 840.17 ± 0,02a 3.48 ± 0,02b
pH 4.26 ± 0,02a 9.80 ± 0,02b
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Results are expressed as mean plus/minus standard deviation in dry basis. Means in the same row followed by different superscript lower-case letters are significantly different (p < 0.05)

A high moisture content (70.50 ± 0.33 g/100 g) was obtained for the lemon peel, a value that is within the range (79.0 g/100 g) reported in the literature (Lario et al. 2004). Tahiti lemon peel moisture is lower than that reported by Persian lemon (Badillo 2011). The flour has a moisture according to that established (< 15%) for wheat flour. This moisture value (8.14 ± 0.00 g/100 g) provides stability to the product, avoiding insect infestation and the development of microorganisms, especially the growth of molds that produce aflatoxins (Abou-Arab et al. 2016). A similar final moisture content of diverse dietary fiber concentrates from fruit by-products has been reported previously. Garcia-Amezquita et al. (2018) obtained a final moisture of 2.1 ± 0.1 g/100 g in orange residue dietary fiber powder dried at 55 ± 5 °C in a hot air oven for 12 h. López-Marcos et al. 2015 obtained a final moisture of 7.88 ± 0.52 g/100 g and 9.08 ± 0.82 g/100 g in lemon dietary fiber. Peerajit et al. (2012) obtained a final moisture of 4.8 g/100 g in lime residue dietary fiber powder dried at 60 °C in a hot air oven.

The value obtained from protein (1.44 g/100 g) for the Tahiti lemon peel is lower than that reported by Badillo (2011) (3.14 g/100 g) for Persian lemon. In lemon peel flour (1.57 g/100 g) it is lower than that reported for similar products such as fine lemon and eureka concentrate (7.00 g/100 g and 8.31 g/100 g, respectively) (Figuerola et al. 2005), grapefruit peel flour (4.58 g/100 g), tangerine peel flour (7.89 g/100 g), and orange peel flour (4.92 ± 0.04 g/100 g, 4.9 ± 0.1 g/100 g, 5.24 g/100 g, respectively) (Dias et al. 2020; Garcia-Amezquita et al. 2018). Valiente et al. (1994) observed an increase in protein associated to lignin after roasting cocoa beans. The drying temperature could be affect the protein content, Welti-Chanes et al. (2020) indicate that the amount of bound proteina at fiber in citrus products increased with cooking.

The lipids content of lemon peel (0.31 ± 0.06 g/100 g) is lower than that reported for Persian lemon (0.85 g/100 g) (Badillo 2011). The lipids in lemon peel flour (0.29 ± 0.04 g/100 g) were low in compared with the results of Dias et al. (2020), Garcia-Amezquita et al. (2018) and Egbuonu and Osuji (2016) for orange peel (16.20 ± 0.18 g/100 g, 1.5 ± 0.1 g/100 g and 6.94 ± 0.06 g/100 g, respectively), whereas Zhang et al. (2020) reported 0.92 ± 0.034 g/100 g for lemon peels. This results could have been due to the juice extraction process carried out by the plant supplying the peels, since the oil glands are found in the epicarp and when the pressing process is carried out, there is a breakdown of the oil sacks near the surface of the fruit.

Ash content of the lemon peel (3.69 ± 0.03 g/100 g) was similar to reported by Badillo (2011) (3.97 g/100 g) for Persian lemon. The ash level observed for lemon peel flour (3.48 ± 0.09 g/100 g) was comparable to the content obtained in orange peel (4.92 ± 0.04 g/100 g, 4.2 ± 0.1 g/100 g) (Dias et al. 2020; Garcia-Amezquita et al. 2018) and peels of sweet orange (4.89 ± 0.06%) (Egbuonu and Osuji 2016).

Carbohydrate content of lemon peel (95.12 ± 0.04 g/100 g) and lemon peel flour (94.65 ± 0.10 g/100 g) was far to the value of Dias et al. (2020) (58.62 ± 0.42) for orange peels. However, these values were like the value (89.4 ± 0.1 g/100 g) of Garcia-Amezquita et al. (2018) for orange residues dietary fiber powder. The decrease in sugar content is probably due to the solubility of these in the terpene extraction solution.

The total dietary fiber content obtained for lemon peel and Tahiti lemon peel flour were 89.15 ± 0.00 g/100 g and 92.86 ± 0.06 g/100 g, respectively, indicating that the flour studied might be considered as a source of dietary fiber. These were less than the value obtained for lemon peel flour (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle) (95.61 g/100 g), which was obtained through an extrusion process at temperatures up to 110 °C (García-Méndez et al. 2011), however, it is superior to the results reported for eureka and fine lemon peel concentrate (71.71 g/100 g and 61.92 g/100 g, respectively), which have a particle size of 500–600 µm and were dehydrated at 60 °C for 30 min (Figuerola et al. 2005), for lime residue dietary fiber powder (70.76–72.44 g/100 g) (Peerajit et al. 2012), for orange residues dietary fiber powder (49.2 g/100 g) (Garcia-Amezquita et al. 2018) and a commercial edible fiber, obtained from citrus fruits (82.6 ± 0.1%) (Lupi et al. 2020).

Various technological treatments applied to fruit residues can affect fiber composition (Gutiérrez and Pascual 2016; Lario et al. 2004). Thermal treatments can change the ratio between insoluble–soluble fibers, total dietary fiber content, and their physicochemical properties (Elleuch et al. 2011). In one study the effect of extrusion parameters on some properties of dietary fiber obtained from lemon residues (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle) was evaluated, and extrusion parameters were found to increase soluble dietary fiber and decrease insoluble dietary fiber (García-Méndez et al. 2011). Garcia-Amezquita et al. (2018) observed the total dietary fiber reduction from a decrease in the insoluble dietary fiber and soluble dietary fiber values, both because of the use of the thermal process in the hot air process in comparison with freeze-drying.

Larrauri (1999) observed that fiber content is affected by particle size and peels washing time. In this study the particle size of lemon peel flour was 420 µm, lower than that reported by Figuerola et al. 2005, which may explain the difference in dietary fiber content.

Regarding the pH of the Tahiti lemon peel flour (9.80 ± 0.02), an increase in comparison to the value obtained for the fresh peel (4.26 ± 0.02 g/100 g) is evidenced (Table 3). Garcia-Amezquita et al. (2018) reported a pH of 5.29 for orange residues dietary fiber powder. pH values could be explained by the high pectin content in the fruit peels. Lundberg et al. (2014) reported that the most prevalent polysaccharides in the citrus fiber are pectins (42%) and celluloses (16%). However, the increase of the pH in the lemon peel flour can be attributed to the terpene extraction process of the lemon peel, since this was carried out with a bicarbonate solution, which generated a neutralization of the peel acid, if one takes into account that the sodium bicarbonate pH is 8.6 (5% solution).

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is an important biocomponent, but it is thermolabile, so it was affected by the temperature during the processing. The percentage of ascorbic acid content loss of lemon peel was 99.59 with the process. Similar results are reported by Vegas-Gálvez et al. (2009) that observed 98.20% losses in ascorbic content of red pepper dried at 90 °C. The literature reports that this important bioactive compound is easily altered due to the action of temperature, light, pH changes and metal ions (Abou-Arab et al. 2016; Mercali et al. 2012). This is due to chemical reactions that involve oxidation to the dehydroascorbic to 2,3-diketogulonic acid and generation by polymerization of nutritionally inactive products (Dewanto et al. 2002). It was also affected by the terpene extraction process since vitamin C is water soluble.

The differences observed, compared to the literature, may be due to various factors, such as variety, growing area, cultivation conditions, soil characteristics, ripening state, anatomical part of the fruit and vegetable under evaluation and processing (washing time, particle size and drying time), among others.

Color

Color is one of the important quality parameters in food products. For the color of lemon peel flour, it can be seen that the flour has a high luminosity (75.48 ± 0.10), the coordinate to a* (-3.0 ± 0.10) is close to the center of the color space, however, being negative is tending to the green coloration, while b * (27.76 ± 0.86) is located towards yellow.

The values of L* and a* differ with that reported by several authors (García-Méndez et al. 2011; Lario et al. 2004), who indicate lower values of luminosity (64.91 ± 0.44 and 69.6, respectively) and a* values of 4.47 ± 0.27 and 0.05, respectively. Observations of orange peels flour of Dias et al. (2020) was showed similar trends for the color values. The differences may be related to the brightness of the Tahiti lemon peel, as well as the amount of mesocarp (albedo), which could increase the luminosity. As for the variation a*, this could be related to the terpene extraction process, since in this there is the extraction of pigments and sugars. The value of b* coincides with that reported (25), the green–yellow hue obtained in the present investigation, could be due to the ripening state of the lemons used. Greenness and yellowness of the peels were high may be due to the pigments like chlorophyll and carotenoids (Dias et al. 2020).

Functional properties

The functional properties depend on the chemical and physical structure of the polysaccharides and proteins of the peels, which largely affected by grinding, drying, heating, extrusion, cooking, etc. (Garcia-Amezquita et al. 2018; Abou-Arab et al. 2016) and other factors such as porosity, particle size, ionic form, pH, temperature, ionic strength, type of ions in solution and stresses upon fibers (Willemsen et al. 2020; Elleuch et al. 2011).

The lemon peel flour showed a water retention capacity (WRC) of 9.27 ± 0.36 g water/g sample, a swelling capacity (SC) of 9.33 ± 0.11 mL water/g sample and a solubility of 3.26 ± 0.19 g soluble portion/g sample.

The water retention capacity in this investigation is similar to that found in the tangerine peel powder, where its WRC was 9.0 ± 0.5 g water/g product and in dietary fiber of orange where its value is 9.56 g water/g product (Grigelmo-Miguel and Martín-Belloso 1999). López-Marcos et al. (2015) obtained dietary fiber concentrate from lemon, grapefruit, pomegranate, and tiger nut bagasse with WRC up to 8.0 mL/g. Zhang et al. (2020) reported 8.24 g/g for lemon peels. However, the value obtained is lower than that reported for dietary fiber powder obtained from lemon peel, where this was higher at 11 g water/g product (Lario et al. 2004). WRC obtained is higher than that reported for fiber concentrates based on the peel of two varieties of lemon, whereas for the Eureka lemon it was 1.85 g water/g product and for the fine lemon it was of 1.74 g water/g of product (Figuerola et al. 2005) and orange peels powder (6.33 ± 0.14 mL/g and 3.4 ± 0.1 mL/g, respectively) (Dias et al. 2020; Garcia-Amezquita et al. 2018). High WRC could be attributed to the presence of higher amount of carbohydrates and fiber in this flour, mainly can be attributed to the presence of large amounts of insoluble dietary fiber (Welti-Chanes et al. 2020). The hydration properties of fibers containing polyelectrolytes, such as the carboxyl groups of pectin polymers, are known to be influenced by variations in pH and the presence and nature of counter ions in suspension (Willemsen et al. 2020). A portion of the soluble fibers is lost during measurement using the method used in this research, underestimating the WRC (Elleuch et al. 2011).

As for the swelling capacity (9.33 ± 0.11 mL water/g), a similar value was obtained for flour obtained from lemon peel of the Fino variety (9.19 mL water/g sample) (Figuerola et al. 2005), for orange residues (10.6 ± 0.3 mL/g) (Garcia-Amezquita et al. 2018) and orange peels powder (8.98 ± 0.14 mL/g) (Dias et al. 2020), but higher than that of Eureka lemon peel flour (7.32 mL water/g sample) (Figuerola et al. 2005) and lemon peels (4.86 mL/g) (Zhang et al. 2020). The total dietary fiber content to have an influence on the decrease of the SC (Garcia-Amezquita et al. 2018), mainly insoluble dietary fiber, that can adsorb water like a sponge material forming a hydrophilic matrix where the water is entrapped (Welti-Chanes et al. 2020). This behavior was observed in the results published by O’Shea et al. (2015) in orange and apple pomace concentrates, where orange pomace with a total dietary fiber content of 40.5 g/100 g showed an SC of 8.1 mL/g, whereas apple pomace concentrates with a total dietary fiber content of 30.2 g/100 g exhibited an SC of 12.8 mL/g.

Grinding can also increase and decrease the hydration properties of the same material, depending in its particle size. A reduction in the particle size may also cause changes in the fiber matrix structure, resulting in an increase in the surface area and breakage of pores in the fiber matrix, thereby affecting the hydration properties (Peerajit et al. 2012). It can damage the regions of potential water holding capacity and, therefore, decrease the capacity to hold water. On the other hand, it can improve these properties because of the increase in surface area (Elleuch et al. 2011).

The solubility (3.26 ± 0.19 g soluble portion/g sample) was higher than that reported for tangerine peel flour (0.19 g soluble portion/g sample), but lower than that reported for orange peels powder (44.7 ± 1.0%) (Garcia-Amezquita et al. 2018). This may indicate that the insoluble fiber content is greater than the soluble fiber content in lemon peel flour because insoluble dietary fiber is the fiber fraction that is not soluble in water. A negative correlation (R2 = 0.67) between solubility and insoluble dietary fiber content of the dehydrated orange samples was observed by Garcia-Amezquita et al. (2018). This behavior is comparable to that reported by Huang and Ma (2016), where a reduction in the insoluble dietary fiber content of orange pomace from 46.5 to 33.6% (db) increased solubility from 2.8 to 30.6%.

The variation of the data for these functional properties is related to the particle size and dietary fiber content (Garcia-Amezquita et al. 2018; Elleuch et al. 2011; Lario et al. 2004; Grigelmo-Miguel and Martín-Belloso 1999). The functional properties, water swelling and holding capacities, of citrus fiber could be highly improved by the chemo-mechanical treatment (pH, speed homogenization) because decreased citrus fiber's crystallinity value and helped citrus fiber form rougher surface and porous structures (Willemsen et al. 2020; Zhang et al. 2020). By contrast, pH alone can surely enhance fiber hydration but not promoting swelling and network formation, whereas high salt concentrations could strongly impair the texturizing properties of the fibers, given that excess salts were found to hinder fiber hydration, swelling and network formation (Willemsen et al. 2020).

High SC and WRC indicates that the materials tested may increase in medium viscosity, form gels, effect of satiety and increased fecal bolus therefore decreasing glucose, fat, and cholesterol absorption (Welti-Chanes et al. 2020; Dias et al. 2020).

Formulation of cakes

Consumers were asked to mark all terms that applied from the 21 terms related to cake, which could describe the product. This type of methodology has the advantage of combining information about perceived attributes without the need of a scale, allowing for the main sensory description of the product. The Cochran´s Q test was performed to identify significant differences between samples for each attribute included in the CATA analysis (Table 4). The attributes that had the highest frequency of selection for the 0% and 10% formulations were sweet, pleasant, soft and foamy; and, sweet, pleasant and soft, respectively. While for the 20% substitution formulation they were residual flavor and lemon smell, for the 30% formulation, bitter, green, and unpleasant color were highlighted. Such terms may be considered the most appropriate in the participants’ description of samples.

Table 4.

Cochran´s Q test for each attribute

Attributes p-value 0% 10% 20% 30%
Sweet 0.000 0.683b 0.550b 0.167a 0.083a
Egg flavor 0.112 0.133a 0.100a 0.083a 0.017a
Acid 0.000 0.170a 0.067ab 0.217b 0.233b
Residual flavor 0.000 0.217a 0.217a 0.533b 0.567b
Lemon flavor 0.000 0.050a 0.383b 0.417b 0.617b
Bitter 0.000 0.017a 0.033a 0.383b 0.683c
Strange flavor 0.016 0.067a 0.133ab 0.183ab 0.267b
Egg smell 0.001 0.267b 0.117ab 0.067a 0.100ab
Lemon smell 0.000 0.000a 0.267b 0.417bc 0.583c
Strange smell 0.148 0.067a 0.167a 0.167a 0.183a
Pleasant 0.000 0.917b 0.883b 0.467a 0.250a
Unpleasant 0.000 0.000a 0.017a 0.233b 0.533c
Soft 0.000 0.850c 0.767bc 0.567b 0.267a
Rubbery 0.003 0.150ab 0.217ab 0.117a 0.367b
Characteristic color 0.000 0.633c 0.467bc 0.333b 0.067a
Green 0.000 0.017a 0.100a 0.383b 0.767c
Compact 0.000 0.083a 0.183a 0.500b 0.517b
Foamy 0.000 0.933c 0.750bc 0.633b 0.300a
Sandy 0.009 0.233ab 0.100a 0.150ab 0.317b
Greasy feeling 0.000 0.367b 0.250ab 0.100a 0.100a
Hard 0.000 0.000a 0.050a 0.000a 0.300b
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Results are expressed as mean plus/minus standard deviation. Means in the same column followed by different superscript lower-case letters are significantly different (p < 0.05)

As can be observed, the cake with a 10% substitution is described similarly to the control (0%). For the 20% substitution the lemon smell already appears and for 30% there are attributes that should not be present in a cake, such as bitterness. As well as characteristic attributes of lemon peel flour (green, bitter).

In the texture analysis performed on the four formulations, it is observed that there are significant differences (p < 0.05) for the hardness and that this increases with the percentage of substitution, since greater compression force is required (26.30 ± 3.78 kgf, 33.60 ± 2.41 kgf, 51.20 ± 4.93 kgf and 64.00 ± 4.27 kgf, respectively). The fiber can modify the texture and the consistency of foods (Elleuch et al. 2011). The increase of the hardness is probably due to competition between lemon peel flour and wheat flour for the collection of water during the preparation of the mixture, which avoids the absorption of sufficient water by wheat flour, contributing to a greater hardness of the product (Chang et al. 2015). Welti-Chanes et al. (2020) reported that the arabinoxylans presents in the citrus peel compete with gluten for water undergo their own network formation, thus interfering with gluten network formation and negatively affecting dough processability and final product texture. The texturizing properties of the fibers are dominated by the extent of swelling and network formation, promoted by high mechanical shearing, affected by pH conditions and presence of salts prior to shearing, rather than the fiber hydration value and volume occupancy of the fibers hydrated by strongly bound water (Willemsen et al. 2020).

The results instrumental texture analysis coincides with the data obtained in the CATA test (Table 4), where the frequency of choice of the definition of compact by consumers increases as the percentage of substitution increases, while the frequency of choice of the foamy attribute was inversely proportional to the percentage of substitution. Welti-Chanes et al. (2020) reported low volume index with increasing the levels of citrus fibers in the preparation of citrus (orange and lemon) dietary fiber enriched biscuits. Product volume related to the texture characteristics (foamy, cohesiveness) is also altered significantly with the addition of fibers. The fiber addition leads to a reduction in the loaf height and specific volume of a product. This reduction in size may be due to interference in gluten matrix development because of dilution of the gluten with dietary fiber (Welti-Chanes et al. 2020).

The formulations showed no adhesiveness, which coincides with that reported to muffin rich in dietary fiber (Kiran and Neetu 2017), where a null adhesiveness is determined for this product.

Factorial Correspondence Analysis (FCA) was performed on the CATA data. The first two dimensions accounted for by 93.4% of the variance in the experimental data, with 84.4 and 9.0% for the first and second dimensions, respectively. Figure 1 shows the CATA results for the four samples. The first dimension was positively correlated with the terms ‘sweet’, ‘pleasant’, ‘soft’, ‘egg smell’, ‘egg flavor’, ‘characteristic color’ and ‘foamy’, and negatively correlated with the terms ‘bitter’, ‘acid’, ‘lemon smell’, ‘green color’, ‘compact’, ‘sandy’ and ‘hard’. This result is consistent with the fact that some of these terms were the most frequently used to describe samples justifying their correlation with the dimension that presented the greatest explained variability. On the other hand, the second dimension was positively correlated with the terms ‘bitter’, ‘acid’, ‘lemon smell’, ‘green color’, and negatively correlated with the terms ‘compact’, ‘rubbery’ and ‘hard’.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Representation of the four samples of cake

Figure 1 shows the position of samples in the first two FCA dimensions. The first dimension separated the cake into two groups. The control (0%) and 10% were in the right quadrants, and the 20% and 30% were in the left quadrants. The 10% sample can be characterized by the terms ‘pleasant’, ‘soft’ and ‘foamy’, while the 20% y 30% of substitution was described with the terms ‘residual flavor’, ‘lemon smell’, and ‘bitter’, ‘unpleasant’ and ‘green color’, respectively.

Acceptability of the four formulations was determined by a hedonic five-point scale, included in the CATA type evaluation format. The control sample (0%, 4.6 ± 0.44) and the formulation with a 10% (4.4 ± 0.39a) substitution have no significant differences in acceptability (p > 0.05) showing a high value, while for 20% (2.9 ± 0.61) and 30% (1.5 ± 0.32) of substitution the acceptability is low and significantly different (p < 0.05). Looking at the results obtained in the CATA test and in the acceptability, it can be said that the best percentage to replace the fat in the cake with lemon peel flour is 10%. In this type of products, the volume of the product as well as the color and crumb texture of the product is important for acceptability. The fiber that contributes to volume, porosity and a product that is like a control product is most acceptable to the consumer (Welti-Chanes et al. 2020).

However, if the attributes that describe the 20% substitution are considered, considering that the comparison was made against a vanilla cake, the lemon smell or green color was considered “not acceptable”. But these are not necessarily unwanted, the cake could be described as lemon and a higher percentage of substitution could be reached. Enhancement of the aroma during drying process was recognized may be due to the releasing of volatile aroma compounds in fruit peels at 60 °C (Dias et al. 2020). In addition, for the replacement of 20% it is possible to appreciate a good opening of the crumb, which is reflected in a good foaminess of the cake, and therefore a relatively acceptable firmness.

In bakery products, fibers are used to develop reduced-fat or high-fiber products. Grigelmo-Miguel and Martín-Belloso (1999) developed a high-fruit-dietary-fiber muffin by adding 2–10% of peach fiber, substituting up to 32% flour. The high fiber muffins had higher moisture due to the WRC of the fiber used. Springiness and cohesiveness were not affected with fiber addition, but hardness, chewiness and gumminess values increased, producing also darker products. Muffins with substitution up to 5% fiber were considered as acceptable as the control sample (100% flour) based on consumer hedonic-scale evaluations. Welti-Chanes et al. (2020) reported that orange or lemon fiber can be added into biscuits at a replacement level of 5% without significant effects on biscuits quality. Al-Sayed Hanan and Ahmed Abdelrahman (2013) reported that cake batter formulated with partial substitution of flour or fat with 5% watermelon rind or sharlyn melon peel powders had bioactive components as compared to cake prepared with 100% wheat flour and the substitution of wheat flour at 5% is recommended to produce an acceptable cake. Welti-Chanes et al. (2020) reported no differences were observed between the acceptability of reduced-fat muffins fortified with peach fiber up to 4% and the control.

Characterization of the cake

The cake with 10% lemon peel flour (1.93 g/100 g of cake) has a lower lipid content, showing a reduction of the fat content of 19.16%, which translates into a reduction in energy value. The dietary fiber content increased by 82.69%. Likewise, there is a greater humidity in the cake with substitution, this could be explained by the hydration process of the lemon peel flour.

Welti-Chanes et al. (2020) reported the use of peach fiber to substitute it for oil in a standard muffin recipe. In this study, muffins were prepared with a range of peach fiber of 2–10% resulting in products with higher moisture content, protein, and minerals as well as fewer calories than the control (100% oil). Al-Sayed Hanan and Ahmed Abdelrahman (2013) reported a reduction of the fat content of 25.90% and 23.95% for partial substitution of fat with 5% watermelon rind or sharlyn melon peel powders in cakes.

Tahiti lemon peel (Citrus latifolia Tanaka) flour is a viable fat mimetic to be used in cakes, which coincides with the literature (Lario et al. 2004), who indicates that the flour obtained from Fine lemon peel has a good functional and microbial quality, as well as favorable physicochemical characteristics, so it could be used in food formulations such as bakery products, dairy and meat products.

Conclusion

Bakery products are important dietary components for people all over the world. Therefore, baked goods with increased nutritional value are of great interest. The Tahiti lemon peel flour was determined as an ideal material to be used as a fat mimetic due to its high-water retention capacity, high content of dietary fiber and low-fat content. A successful and novel formulation of cake with lemon peel flour was developed, where a fat replacement was reached by 10%, which allowed the attainment of a sensory and physically acceptable product, this percentage of substitution favored the decrease in the fat content in the cake and an increase in the fiber content. Overall, it could be recommended that the technology of using lemon peel flour should be encouraged among food industries to make use of local raw materials to incorporate into cake and provide cake with more functional components.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the Fundación Universitaria Agraria de Colombia, Bogotá for the financing of the project.

Compliance with ethical standards

Conflict of interest

The authors have no conflicts to interest.

Footnotes

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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