TABLE 2.
Associations between difficulties hearing and seeing (exposures) and other covariates with chronic anxiety and depression (outcomes) in Spanish adults, estimated by multivariable logistic regression.
| Variables | Categories | Depressiona | Chronic anxietyb |
| Only difficulty seeing | Yes | 2.367 (2.035–2.754)*** | 1.983 (1.698–2.315)*** |
| REF: No | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
| Only difficulty hearing | Yes | 2.098 (1.667–2.640)*** | 1.942 (1.537–2.455)*** |
| REF: No | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
| Difficulty seeing and hearing | Yes | 3.852 (2.725–5.444)*** | 3.385 (2.377–4.821)*** |
| REF: No | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
| Gender | Females | 2.357 (2.069–2.684)*** | 2.250 (1.981–2.556)*** |
| REF: Males | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
| Age | ≥65 years | 1.113 (0.936–1.323) | 1.319 (1.089–1.597)** |
| REF: <65 years | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
| Marital status | Single | 0.688 (0.569–0.831)*** | 0.771 (0.639–0.930)** |
| Married | 0.961 (0.820–1.126) | 0.995 (0.847–1.169) | |
| Widowed/divorced/separated | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
| Living as a couple | No | 1.672 (1.491–1.874)*** | 1.430 (1.278–1.601)*** |
| REF: Yes | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
| Education | No formal education | 2.166 (1.693–2.772)*** | 1.887 (1.474–2.417)*** |
| Primary | 2.310 (1.917–2.782)*** | 1.781 (1.483–2.139)*** | |
| Secondary | 1.676 (1.437–1.955)*** | 1.441 (1.248–1.664)*** | |
| REF: Tertiary | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
| Smoking | Current smoker | 0.606 (0.527–0.697)*** | 0.566 (0.493–0.648)*** |
| Past smoker | 0.733 (0.633–0.850)*** | 0.675 (0.583–0.781)*** | |
| REF: Never | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
| Alcohol | Daily or almost daily | 0.811 (0.659–0.999)* | 0.829 (0.672–1.022) |
| 5–6 days per week | 0.550 (0.306–0.991)* | 0.483 (0.258–0.906)* | |
| 3–4 days per week | 0.878 (0.631–1.221) | 0.699 (0.491–0.994)* | |
| 1–2 days per week | 0.614 (0.496–0.759)*** | 0.748 (0.611–0.915)** | |
| 2–3 days in a month | 0.553 (0.435–0.703)*** | 0.639 (0.507–0.805)*** | |
| Once a month | 0.779 (0.602–1.009) | 0.914 (0.714–1.169) | |
| Less than once a month | 0.845 (0.689–1.037) | 1.010 (0.829–1.231) | |
| Not in the last 12 months, I have stopped drinking alcohol | 1.613 (1.355–1.920)*** | 1.404 (1.173–1.680)*** | |
| REF: Never or just a few sips to try it throughout life | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
| BMI | Underweight | 0.647 (0.440–0.951)* | 0.807 (0.563–1.157) |
| Normal | 0.579 (0.496–0.676)*** | 0.649 (0.556–0.758)*** | |
| Overweight | 0.845 (0.730–0.980)* | 0.892 (0.768–1.036) | |
| REF: Obesity | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
| Physical activity | <600 MET-minutes/week | 1.497 (1.334–1.681)*** | 1.486 (1.326–1.667)*** |
| ≥600 MET-minutes/week | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
| Cataracts | Yes | 1.760 (1.418–2.185)*** | 1.453 (1.151–1.834)** |
| REF: No | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
| Glasses/contact lenses | Yes | 1.663 (1.456–1.900)*** | 1.686 (1.479–1.920)*** |
| REF: No | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
| Hearing aid | Yes | 1.017 (0.724–1.429) | – |
| REF: No | 1.0 | – |
Values expressed in Odds Ratio (95% Confidence Interval). *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001. REF, reference category.
aModel adjusted for gender, age, marital status, living as a couple, education, smoking, alcohol, BMI, physical activity, cataracts, glasses/contact lenses, and hearing aid. bModel adjusted for gender, age, marital status, living as a couple, education, smoking, alcohol, BMI, physical activity, cataracts, and glasses/contact lenses.