TABLE 2.

A summary of the main findings in toxin-induced rodent models of Parkinson’s disease.

Toxin	Administration methods	Main alteration	References
6-OHDA	Bilateral injection into the SN	– Anterograde degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system – Akinesia	Ungerstedt, 1968
	Unilateral injections into the right medial striatum forebrain bundle	– ↓ Locomotor activity – ↓TH-positive dopaminergic neurons – Oxidative stress	Ozsoy et al., 2015
		– BBB disruption	Carvey et al., 2005
		– Neuroinflammation (microgliosis and astrogliosis)	Walsh et al., 2011; Gasparotto et al., 2017
MPTP	Subcutaneous and intraperitoneal injections	– ↓ Motor activity and locomotion	Fredriksson et al., 1999; Fornai et al., 2005
		– = Locomotion	Tomac et al., 1995; Chia et al., 1996; Luchtman et al., 2009
		– ↑ Locomotion	Tomac et al., 1995; Chia et al., 1996; Luchtman et al., 2009
		– ↑α-synuclein-positive inclusions in neurons – Lysosomes filled with proteinaceous debris and lipid droplets	Wu et al., 2002
		– BBB failure (↓tight junctions’ proteins) – ↓ TH-positive dopaminergic neurons – ↑ Gliosis	Chen et al., 2008
	Infusion of MPP+ into the left cerebral ventricle	– ↓ Dopaminergic neurons	Yazdani et al., 2006
		– ↑ Infiltration of T cells – ↑ Activation of the microglia – ↑ Gene expression of IL-1β, INFγ, TNF-α	Kurkowska-Jastrzebska et al., 2009
Agrochemicals (rotenone, paraquat, and maneb)	Intraperitoneal injections	– ↓ TH immunoreactivity in neurons – Dopaminergic degeneration	McCormack et al., 2002; Drechsel and Patel, 2008; von Wrangel et al., 2015
		– Bradykinesia – Postural instability – Rigidity – ↑α-synuclein positive aggregates – Neuroinflammation	Cannon et al., 2009
	Intragastric administration	– ↑ Nigral degeneration – Neuroinflammation	Martinez et al., 2017
α-synuclein PFF	Intracerebral administration	– Pathological α-synuclein deposition – Neuronal loss – Neuroinflammation – Behavioral deficits	Luk et al., 2012; Gordon et al., 2018; Chung et al., 2019; Earls et al., 2019