Fig. 1.

Integration of subtyping (endophenotyping) into personalized medicine in Parkinson’s disease, adapted from [119]. Patients with Parkinson’s disease can be clinically subtyped anchored on the dominant nonmotor symptoms (NMS) evident in the denovo or early motor stage using specific biomarkers (imaging or genetic) where available. The resulting subtype can then be clinically managed using a subtype-specific treatment approach which incorporates several strands of personalized medicine and multi-disciplinary input as well as monitoring with patient related outcome measures (PRO)