Table 4. Study characteristics.
| No. | First author, year | Study design | Sample (N) | Sample characteristic: age (year), gender (male, female) | Smoking characteristic: type, years of smoking, cigarettes/day and/or packs/year | NMC measurement test | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | Arıcıgil and Arbağ , 2018 5 | Cross-sectional | Non-smokers: 40 Smokers I (once every week): 20 Smokers II (more than once a week/2–5 session-week): 18 |
Age: 18–41 years Non-smokers: 27.5 ± 6.4 Smokers I: 26.9 ± 6.8 Smokers II: 27.7 ± 6.3 Gender Non-smokers: 22,18 Smokers I: 11,9 Smokers II: 10,8 |
Hookah smoking | Saccharin transfer/transit time test |
• NMC value (STT) in smokers was significantly higher than in non smokers (
p
< 0.001).
• NMC value (STT) in the smokers-II group was significantly higher than in the smokers-I group and non-smokers (19.2 ± 2.5; 11.9 ± 2.8; 11.1 ± 3; p < 0.001). |
| 2. | Dulger et al, 2018 4 | Prospective study (2 years period) | Non-smokers: 35 Smokers: 50 |
Age: 18–65 years Non-smokers: 35.8 Smokers: 31.4 Gender Non-smokers: 23,12 Smokers: 30,20 |
Cigarette smoking Cigarettes/day: 20.6 Packs-year: ≤10 packs/year: 11 10–20 packs/year: 28 20–30 packs/year: 5 ≥ 30 packs/year: 6 |
Saccharin transfer/transit time test |
• NMC value (STT) in smokers was significantly higher than in non-smokers (12 minutes, 9 minutes;
p
< 0.001).
• No stastistically significant difference in nasal MCC value and packs/year ( p = 0.943). |
| 3. | Paul et al, 2018 3 | Cross-sectional | Non-smokers: 20 Cigarette smokers: 20 Bidi smokers: 20 |
Age: 20–40 years Non-smokers: 29.3 ± 6.25 Cigarette smokers: 31.2 ± 5.42 Bidi smokers: 30.2 ± 6.77 Gender: male |
Cigarette and Bidi smoking Packs/year: Cigarette smokers: 4.63 ± 2.74 Bidi smokers: 7.5 ± 5.1 |
Methylene blue dye test |
• NMC value was significantly decreased in bidi smokers as compared with cigarette smokers and non-smokers (59.25 ± 12.38 mm; 67 ± 5.48 mm; 67.89 ± 4.10 mm;
p
< 0.05).
• Multivariate analysis revealed a significant association between NMC and bidi smoking, number of cigarettes or bidis smoked per day, and packs/year ( p < 0.05). |
| 4. | Solak et al, 2018 2 | Cross-sectional | Non-smokers: 74 Smokers: 123 |
Age: 18–55 years Non-smokers: 38.79 ± 9.66 Smokers: 40.33 ± 8.94 Gender Non-smokers: 58,16 Smokers: 23,100 |
Cigarette smoking Years of smoking: 24.31 ± 9.66 Cigarettes/day: 18.45 ± 8.78 Packs/year: 28.49 ± 15.68 |
Saccharin transfer/transit time test |
• NMC value (STT) in smokers was significantly higher than in non-smokers (536.19 ± 254.81 seconds 320.43 ± 184.98 seconds
p
< 0.001).
• Positive correlation between STT and number of cigarettes/day (p: 0.012, r: 0.225), STT and packs/year (p:0.001, r:0.296), STT and years of smoking ( p = 0.027, r = 0.200). |
| 5. | Uzeloto et al, 2018 48 | Cross-sectional | Non-smokers: 69 Smokers: 70 |
Age: 30–50 years Non-smokers: 39.5* Smokers: 41* Gender Non-smokers: 32,37 Smokers: 33,37 *: median |
Cigarette smoking Years of smoking: 21.50* Cigarettes/day: 20.00* Packs/year: 22.00* *: median |
Saccharin transfer/transit time test | NMC value (STT) in smokers was insignificantly higher than in non-smokers (9.7 minutes; 9.145 minutes; p > 0.05). |
| 6. | Kumral et al, 2016 6 | Prospective randomized single-blind clinical trial | Non-smokers: 40 Smokers: 58 |
Age Non-smokers: 38.0 ± 8.2 Smokers: 33.9 ± 7.9 Gender Non-smokers: 16,14 Smokers: 18,24 |
EC smoking duration: 3 months |
Saccharin transfer/transit time test | NMC value (STT) in electronic cigarette was significantly higher than in non-smokers (11.93 ± 1.81; 10.36 ± 1.61; p = 0.0003). |
| 7. | Utiyama et al, 2016 11 | Prospective study (12 months duration) | Quitters: 20 Smokers: 13 |
Age Quitters: 51 ± 9 Smokers: 52 ± 10 Gender Quitters: 9,11 Smokers: 6,7 |
Cigarette smoking Packs/year: Quitters: 40 ± 27 Smokers: 45 ± 28 |
Saccharin transfer/transit time test | • NMC value (STT) in smokers showed increases of impairment after 12 months observation (±14 minutes; ± 15 minutes). • NMC value (STT) in quitter showed decreases of impairment after 12 months observation (±15 minutes, ± 10 minutes). |
| 8. | Habesoglu et al, 2015 29 | Cross-sectional | Group I (control): 18 Group II (living with at least one adult smoker outside the house): 15 Group III (living with at least one adult smoker inside the house): 17 |
Age 6–14 years Group I: 10.22 ± 2.39 Group II: 11.2 ± 1.97 Group III: 10.65 ± 2.09 Gender Group I: 9,9 Group II: 7,8 Group III: 9,8 |
Passive smoking | Saccharin transfer/transit time test |
• NMC value (STT) in group II was insignificantly higher than in group I (
p
= 0.067).
• NMC value (STT) in group III was significantly higher than in group I ( p < 0.001). • NMC value (STT) in group III was insignificantly higher than in group II ( p = 0.173). • NMC value (STT) in groups I, II, and III: 7.33 ± 2.91 minutes, 10.00 ± 4.78 minutes, 12.41 ± 3.44 minutes. |
| 9. | Pagliuca et al, 2015 12 | Cross-sectional | Non-smokers: 30 Ex-smokers:30 Smokers:30 |
Age Non-smokers: 53.17 ± 5.53 Ex-smokers: 50.73 ± 6.51 Smokers: 51.97 ± 6.02 Gender Non-smokers: 19,11 Ex-smokers: 23,7 Smokers: 24,6 |
Cigarette smoking Cigarettes/day: ex-smokers:25 ± 7.76 smokers: 24.67 ± 6.3 |
Saccharin transfer/transit time test | NMC value (STT) in smokers was significantly higher than in others (smokers: 15.6 minutes, ex-smokers: 11.77 minutes, non-smokers: 11.71 minutes, p < 0.0001). |
| 10. | Baby et al, 2014 17 | Cross-sectional | Non-smokers: 30 Smokers: 30 |
Age: 21–40 years Non-smokers: 26.8 ± 1.2 Smokers: 24.96 ± 1 Gender: male |
Cigarette smoking | Saccharin transfer/transit time test |
• NMC value (STT) in smokers was significantly higher than in the non-smokers group (481.2 ± 29.83 seconds 300.32 ± 17.42 seconds;
p
< 0.01).
• A statistically significant increase in the NMC value was observed with an increase in duration of smoking habit (NMC in smoking < 1 year: 492.25 ± 79.93 seconds; 1–5 years: 516.7 ± 34.01 seconds > 5 years: 637.5 ± 28.49 seconds p = 0.0000). |
| 11. | Nicola et al, 2014 28 | Cross-sectional | Non-smokers: 32 Smokers < 2.5 packs/year: 20 Smokers > 2.5 packs/year: 20 |
Age: 18–35 years Non-smokers: 21 Smokers <2.5 packs-year: 19 Smokers >2.5 packs-year: 24 Gender Non-smokers: 29, 3 Smokers <2.5 packs-year: 20,0 Smokers >2.5 packs-year: 17,3 |
Cigarette smoking Years of smoking Smokers < 2.5 packs/year: 3* Smokers > 2.5 packs/year: 7* Packs/year: Smokers < 2.5 packs/year: 0.7* Smokers > 2.5 packs/year: 6* *: median |
Saccharin transfer/transit time test | • NMC value (STT) in smokers was significantly lower than in non-smokers (5.9 ± 3.1 minutes; 7.7 ± 4.1 minutes; p = 0.033). |
| 12. | Yadav et al, 2014 7 | Prospective study (five years duration) | Non-smokers: 50 Active smokers: 50 Passive smokers: 50 |
Age: 20–50 years Non-smokers: 38.7 Active smokers: 39.1 Passive smokers: 35.1 Gender: Non-smokers: 44,6 Active smokers: 42,8 Passive smokers: 24,26 |
Cigarette smoking (active and passive) | Saccharin transfer/transit time test |
• NMC value (STT) in smokers (active and passive) was significantly higher than in non-smokers (23.08 ± 4.60; 20.31 ± 2.51; 8.57 ± 2.12;
p
< 0.0003).
• NMC value (STT) in active smokers was insignificantly higher than in passive smokers ( p = 0.03). |
| 13. | Xavier et al, 2013 20 | Cross-sectional | Non-smokers: 24 Light smokers: 14 Moderate smokers: 34 Heavy smokers: 27 |
Age: Non-smokers: 50 ± 11 Light smokers: 51 ± 15 Moderate smokers: 49 ± 7 Heavy smokers: 46 ± 8 Gender Non-smokers: 7,17 Light smokers: 5,9 Moderate smokers: 14, 20 Heavy smokers: 13, 14 |
Cigarette smoking Years of smoking Light smokers: 32 ± 17 Moderate smokers: 29 ± 9 Heavy smokers: 32 ± 8 Cigarettes/day: Light smokers: 9 ± 1 Moderate smokers: 18 ± 3 Heavy smokers: 39 ± 11 Packs/year index: Light smokers: 17 ± 10 Moderate smokers: 27 ± 11 Heavy smokers: 59 ± 44 |
Saccharin transfer/transit time test |
• NMC value (STT) in moderate and heavy smokers was significantly higher (
p
= 0.0001) than in light smokers and non-smokers.
• A positive correlation was observed between STT and cigarettes/day (r = 0.3; p = 0.02). |
| 14. | Habesoglu et al, 2012 38 | Cross-sectional | Non-smokers: 15 Passive smokers: 15 Active smokers: 17 |
Age: 17–47 years Active smokers: 28.12 ± 10.79 Passive smokers: 29.17 ± 12.18 Non-smokers: 27.92 ± 11.29 Gender Active smokers: 11,6 Passive smokers: 8,7 Non-smokers: 6,9 |
Cigarette smoking (active and passive) | Saccharin transfer/transit time test |
• NMC value (STT) in active smokers was significantly higher than in passive smokers and non-smokers (23.59 ± 12.41 minutes; 12.6 ± 4.67 minutes; 6.4 ± 1.55 minutes;
p
< 0.01).
• NMC value (STT) in the passive group was significantly higher than in the non-smokers group ( p < 0.01). |
| 15. | Proença et al, 2011 35 | Cross-sectional | Non-smokers: 19 Smokers: 19 |
Age Non-smokers: 47 ± 11 Smokers: 51 ± 16 Gender: Non-smokers: 10,9 Smokers: 11,8 |
Cigarette smoking Years of smoking: 33 ± 11 Cigarettes/day: 27 ± 11 Packs/year index: 44 ± 25 |
Saccharin transfer/transit time test |
• NMC value (STT) in smokers was significantly higher than in non-smokers 8 hours after smoking (16 ± 6 minutes; 10 ± 4 minutes,
p
= 0.005) and insignicantly higher immediately after smoking (11 ± 6 minutes; 10 ± 4 minutes;
p
= 0.87).
• NMC value (STT) 8 hours after smoking was correlated positively with age (r = 0.59; p = 0.007), cigarettes per day (r = 0.53; p = 0.02) and packs/year index (r = 0.74; p = 0.0003). |
| 16. | Ramos et al, 2011 31 | Prospective study (1 year-period) | Non-smokers: 33 Smokers: 33 |
Age Non-smokers: 52 ± 14 Smokers: 49 ± 12 Gender: Non-smokers: 18, 15 Smokers: 12,21 |
Cigarette smoking Years of smoking: 21 ± 8 Cigarettes/day: 20 ± 10 Packs/year index: 44 ± 25 |
Saccharin transfer/transit time test | • NMC value (STT) in smokers was significantly higher than in non-smokers (±14 minute, ± 8 minutes, p = 0.002). • NMC value (STT) decreased to within normal range on day 15 after smoking cessation (±10 minutes, p < 0.01), and remained in the normal range until the end of study period (±8 minutes). |
Abbreviations: min, minutes; mm, millimeters; NMC, nasal mucociliary clearance; s, seconds; STT, saccharin transfer time.