Table 5.

3D-bioprinted GBM models

Cellular components	Species	Biomaterials	Printing method	Features of 3D-printed models	Applications	Ref.
GSCs (GSC23)	Human	Gelatin, alginate, fibrinogen	Extrusion-based	Increased angiogenic potential, enhanced stemness, morphological changes	Mechanistic studies	[182]
GSCs (SU3) or GBM cell line (U87)	Human	Gelatin, alginate, fibrinogen	Extrusion-based	Increased angiogenic expression, higher drug resistance, enhanced tumorigenicity	Mechanistic studies, drug responses	[183]
GBM cell line (U118)	Human	Gelatin, alginate, fibrinogen	Extrusion-based	Enhanced stemness, increased EMT markers, higher drug resistance and tumorigenicity	GSC enrichment by 3D ECM, mechanistic studies	[184]
GBM cells (GL261), macrophages	Mouse	GelMA, gelatin	Extrusion-based	Macrophage recruitment, higher matrix remodelling and EMT activities	Tumor-macrophage interactions, drug responses	[185]
GBM cell line (U87), HUVECs	Human	Brain dECM, collagen	Extrusion-based	Hypoxic gradient, proliferation gradient, higher pro-angiogenic markers	Angiogenesis events, cellular responses to dECM, drug responses	[186]
GSCs (GSC23), MSCs	Human	Alginate, gelatin, fibrinogen	Extrusion-based	Spontaneous tumor fiber formation, enhanced stemness and EMT	Tumor-MSC interactions, cell-ECM interactions	[187]
GSCs (GSC23), GBM cell line (U118)	Human	Alginate	Extrusion-based	Elevated expression of matrix remodeling and angiogenic markers, enhanced drug resistance	GSC impact on regular tumor cells, drug responses	[158]
GSCs (CW468, GSC23, 2907, 3264), macrophages, astrocytes, NPCs	Human	GM-HA, GelMA	DLP-based	Enhanced invasion and drug resistance, macrophage polarization to M2	Tumor-stromal interactions, drug response, clinical predictions	[9]
GSCs (G144, G166, G7), GASCs, microglia	Human	RGD-alginate, collagen, HA	Extrusion-based	Higher drug resistance	Tumor-stromal interactions, drug responses	[188]