Table 1.

Examples of effects of land use change on potential malaria risks

Environmental changes	References
Deforestation
Increases in anopheline larval breeding sites in response to forest clearing in the Amazon	[30]
Initial decreases in vector densities followed by colonization by more efficient malaria vectors	[7, 35]
Changes in vector habitat suitability linked with forest disturbance	[29, 34]
Changes in ecological structure and biodiversity increasing or decreasing vector densities, availability of blood meals and resulting disease risks	[116–118]
Agricultural expansion
Effects of irrigation systems	[40, 119]
Expansion of rubber and rice paddies associated with increases in anopheline densities	[28, 36]
Socio-demographic changes
Population at risk
Influx of susceptible populations into endemic areas in response to increased economic opportunity	[43, 120]
Increase and movement of migrant worker populations in the Amazon and Southeast Asia	[121, 122]
Occupational changes, such as forestry and extraction activities bringing people into vector habitats	[44, 47]
Socioeconomic status
Increased income following agricultural development leading to decrease in malaria risk	[52]
Improved housing structure due to development reducing malaria risks	[51, 123]
Wildlife reservoirs
Origin of malaria
P. falciparum originated from non-human primates	[54]
Spatial overlap with wildlife hosts
Increased contact between people and non-human primates hypothesised as main driver of human infections with P. knowlesi and P. cynomolgi in Asia and P. simium and P. brasilianum in South America	[76, 85, 124, 125]
Maintenance of malaria infections
Human malaria species circulating in great apes and gorillas in West and Central Africa	[55, 56]