Table 1.
Potential candidate drugs to COVID-19 prevention and/or treatmenta
| Mechanism of action | Molecular target | Drug | Chemical structure (nature of molecule) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Active immunization to induce antibodies able to block S glycoprotein | GlcNAc2-Man3-GlcNAc2-Asn on S glycoprotein | GlcNAc2-Man3-GlcNAc2-carrier | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/10148744section=2D-Structure (Glycan immunogen)b | (23, 24, 69) |
| Man5-GlcNAc2-Asn on S glycoprotein | Man5-GlcNAc2-carrier | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/25229604section=Structures (Glycan immunogen)b | (23, 24, 69) | |
| Passive immunization with antibodies able to block S glycoprotein | GalNAc-Ser/Thr (Tn antigen) on S glycoprotein | Human polyclonal anti-Tn antibody | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/447272section=2D-Structure (Glycan target)b | (23, 24, 70) |
| Gal-GalNAc-Ser/Thr (T antigen) on S glycoprotein | Human polyclonal anti-T antibody | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/441248section=2D-Structure (Glycan target)b | (23, 24, 70) | |
| Protein replacement with recombinant protein able to block S glycoprotein | Man5-GlcNAc2-Asn on S glycoprotein | Recombinant human mannose-binding lectin | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/25229604section=Structures (Glycan target)b | (71, 72) |
| Galectin-3 inhibition | Carbohydrate-recognition domain of galectin-3 | GB1107 | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/122443390section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (73, 74, 75, 76) |
| TD139c | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/73774610section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (73, 74, 75, 76) | ||
| Glycosidase inhibition | α-Glucosidase I-II | Celgosivir | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/60734section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (77, 78) |
| Castanospermine | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/54445section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (77, 78) | ||
| Chitosan-binding protein inhibition | Chitosan-binding domain of S glycoproteins | Chitosan polysaccharide | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/71853section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (79, 80) |
| N-(-2-hydroxypropyl)-3-trimethylammonium chitosan | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/102340638section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (81) | ||
| Heparan sulfate-binding protein inhibition | Heparan sulfate-binding domain of S glycoprotein RBD | Heparan sulfate | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/53477715section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (82, 83) |
| Unfractionated heparin,b 16,000 Da (54 saccharide units) |
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/substance/53790558section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (82, 83) | ||
| Tinzaparin,b low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH), 6500 Da (22 saccharide units) |
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/772section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (82, 83) | ||
| Dalteparin,b LMWH, 6000 Da (20 saccharide units) |
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/substance/53787074section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (82, 83) | ||
| Enoxaparin,b LMWH, 4500 Da (15 saccharide units) |
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/772section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (82, 83) | ||
| Inhibition of the interaction between S1-RBD and the ACE2 receptor | S Glycoprotein RBD | Kanamycin,b aminoglycoside antibiotic | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/6032section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (84) |
| Amikacin,b aminoglycoside antibiotic | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/37768section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (84) | ||
| Acarbose,b polysaccharide | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/41774section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (84) | ||
| Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 protease and RBD S glycoprotein | SARS-CoV-2 main protease and S glycoprotein RBD | Gentamicin,b aminoglycoside antibiotic | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/3467section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (85) |
| Inhibition of S glycoprotein - ACE2 interaction | ACE2 | Lividomycin, aminoglycoside antibiotic | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/72394section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (86) |
| Inhibition of host importin nuclear transport proteins | Host importin alpha/beta-1 nuclear transport proteins | Ivermectin,b antiparasitic macrolide glycoside | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/6321424section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (87, 88) |
| Inhibition of RBD S glycoprotein - ACE2 interaction | S glycoprotein RBD | Digoxin,b cardiac glycoside | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/2724385section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (89, 90) |
| Ouabain,b cardiac glycoside | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/439501section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (90) | ||
| Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 protease and RBD S glycoprotein | SARS-CoV-2 main protease, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and S glycoprotein RBD | Hesperidin,b flavonoid glycoside | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/10621section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (91, 92, 93, 94) |
| Rutin,b flavonoid glycoside | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/5280805section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (85, 91, 92, 93, 94) | ||
| Quercitrin,b flavonoid glycoside | https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/5280459section=2D-Structure (Drug)b | (85, 91, 92, 93, 94) |
a
All suggested ways to COVID-19 therapy must be validated on clinical trials before their pharmacotherapy application.
b
FDA-approved drug (https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-approvals-and-databases/drugsfda-data-files).
c
Currently in clinical trials (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02257177).