Table 1.
Spearman's rank correlation and prevalence ratio for countries' burden of malnutrition and fatal COVID-19, measured using CFR at week 10 following the first confirmed death reported, stratified by income group*.
| Death rate for child growth failure | YLD rate | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Iron deficiency | Vitamin A deficiency | High BMI | ||
| Global (n = 172) | ||||
| Tertile 1, ref | <1.2 | <139 | <1.5 | <441 |
| Tertile 2 | 1.2–9.1 | 139–349 | 1.5–12 | 441–833 |
| Tertile 3 | ≥9.1 | ≥349 | ≥12 | ≥833 |
| ρ (p-value) | −0.09 (1.000) | −0.21 (0.186) | −0.16 (0.796) | 0.26 (0.018) |
| PR, T3 vs. T1 (95% CI) | 1.76 (0.92; 3.37) | 0.87 (0.47; 1.61) | 1.58 (0.70; 3.53) | 1.77 (0.77; 4.09) |
| High-income countries (n = 57) | ||||
| Tertile 1, ref | <0.4 | <43 | <0.1 | <781 |
| Tertile 2 | 0.4–1.1 | 43–124 | 0.1–0.6 | 781–1,071 |
| Tertile 3 | ≥1.1 | ≥124 | ≥0.6 | ≥1,071 |
| ρ (p-value) | 0.26 (0.815) | −0.15 (1.000) | −0.07 (1.000) | 0.27 (0.775) |
| PR, T3 vs T1 (95% CI) | 1.36 (0.76; 2.43) | 0.74 (0.32; 1.71) | 1.67 (0.82; 3.39) | 0.79 (0.32; 1.98) |
| Upper–middle-income countries (n = 48) | ||||
| Tertile 1, ref | <1.4 | <152 | <3.3 | <663 |
| Tertile 2 | 1.4–4.8 | 152–247 | 3.3–7.7 | 663–913 |
| Tertile 3 | ≥4.8 | ≥247 | ≥7.7 | ≥913 |
| ρ (p-value) | 0.03 (1.000) | −0.23 (0.969) | 0.04 (1.000) | 0.22 (0.985) |
| PR, T3 vs T1 (95% CI) | 2.08 (1.01; 4.29) | 0.45 (0.25; 0.82) | 0.96 (0.43; 2.12) | 0.84 (0.37; 1.84) |
| Lower–middle-income countries (n = 38) | ||||
| Tertile 1, ref | <8.7 | <294 | <12 | <271 |
| Tertile 2 | 8.7–28 | 294–539 | 12–31 | 271–440 |
| Tertile 3 | ≥28 | ≥539 | ≥31 | ≥440 |
| ρ (p-value) | −0.09 (1.000) | −0.44 (0.139) | −0.14 (1.000) | 0.18 (1.000) |
| PR, T3 vs T1 (95% CI) | 1.70 (0.58; 4.99) | 0.28 (0.13; 0.63) | 0.80 (0.29; 2.17) | 0.45 (0.17; 1.16) |
| Low-income countries (n = 29) | ||||
| Tertile 1, ref | <36 | <526 | <51 | <151 |
| Tertile 2 | 36–69 | 526–712 | 51–84 | 151–196 |
| Tertile 3 | ≥69 | ≥712 | ≥84 | ≥196 |
| ρ (p-value) | 0.30 (0.979) | 0.60 (0.027) | 0.47 (0.333) | −0.13 (1.000) |
| PR, T3 vs T1 (95% CI) | 1.00 (0.32; 3.19) | 3.61 (1.45; 8.99) | 0.83 (0.25; 2.79) | 3.32 (0.66; 16.8) |
*
According to World Bank 2019 (29). BMI, body mass index; CFR, case fatality ratio; CI, confidence interval; Death rate, rate of death per 100,000 for all ages; PR, prevalence ratio for COVID-19 fatality in the highest tertile of a countries' burden of malnutrition relative to the lowest tertile calculated in a negative binomial model; ρ, Spearman's rank correlation coefficient with p-value adjusted for multiple testing according to Sidak; YLD rate, rate of years lived with disability per 100,000 for all ages.