Table 1.
Selected staphylococcal factors interfering with programmed cell death and autophagic signaling pathways.
| Pathway | Staphylococcal factor | Category | Affected cells1 | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Apoptosis | AdsA-derived dAdo | Deoxyribonucleoside | Macrophages | (37–39) |
| α-toxin | Pore-forming toxin | Epithelial cells, endothelial cells, T-cells, monocytes, eosinophils | (31, 33, 36, 40–42) | |
| Enterotoxin A | Superantigen | T-cells | (43) | |
| Enterotoxin B | Superantigen | Macrophages, T-cells, epithelial cells | (35, 44, 45) | |
| Enterotoxin H | Superantigen | Epithelial cells | (46) | |
| EsxA | WXG-like protein | Epithelial cells | (47) | |
| Leukocidin AB | Pore-forming toxin | Dendritic cells | (48) | |
| Panton-Valentine leukocidin | Pore-forming toxin | Neutrophils, macrophages, keratinocytes | (32, 49, 50) | |
| Peptidoglycan | Cell wall component | Platelets | (51) | |
| Protein A | Surface protein | Osteoblasts | (52) | |
| Staphopain A | Cysteine protease | Epithelial cells | (53) | |
| Staphopain B | Cysteine protease | Neutrophils, monocytes | (54) | |
| TSST-1 | Superantigen | B-cells | (55) | |
| Pyroptosis | α-toxin | Pore-forming toxin | Monocytes, macrophages, keratinocytes, microglial cells | (56–61) |
| Extracellular vesicles | Membrane vesicles | Macrophages | (62) | |
| γ‐hemolysin | Pore-forming toxin | Microglial cells, macrophages | (61, 63) | |
| Leukocidin AB | Pore-forming toxin | Monocytes, dendritic cells | (48, 64) | |
| Panton-Valentine leukocidin | Pore-forming toxin | Monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils | (63, 65) | |
| Peptidoglycan2 | Cell wall component | Macrophages | (66) | |
| Phenol-soluble modulins3 | Cytolysin | Keratinocytes | (67) | |
| Necroptosis | α-toxin | Pore-forming toxin | T-cells, macrophages | (68, 69) |
| FumC | Fumarate hydratase | Keratinocytes | (70) | |
| Panton-Valentine leukocidin | Pore-forming toxin | Neutrophils | (32) | |
| Phenol-soluble modulins | Cytolysin | Neutrophils | (71) | |
| Autophagy | α-toxin | Pore-forming toxin | Epithelial and epithelial-like cells (CHO), endothelial cells | (72–74) |
| IsaB | Secreted and cell-surface-associated protein | Epithelial cells, macrophages | (75) |
1For each individual factor and pathway listed, other target cells may exist. 2PBP2A-derived peptidoglycan; 3 caspase-1-independent mechanism.