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. 2021 Feb 4;12:103. doi: 10.1186/s13287-021-02158-3

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 2 — The main mechanisms of PMSCs for the treatment of autoimmune diseases. PMSCs can suppress the function of B and T cells and decrease the proportion of Th1/Th2, Th17/Treg, and M1/M2 via secreting IDO, PGE2, TSG-6, TGF-β1, IL10, sHLA-G, etc. Furthermore, PMSCs can downregulate the levels of inflammatory cytokines as IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, IL-17, and the like, but upregulate the levels of IL-4, IL-10, and TGF-β in the serum or target tissues after transplantation. Moreover, PMSCs can secrete various growth factors such as VEGF and ANG-1 to enhance the therapeutic effects