Table 1.

Challenges with Lecture- and PBL-based approaches

Lecture-based approaches	PBL-based approaches
• Substantial volume of material • Information transmission-oriented • Synchronous in-person or recorded • Faculty-centric • Passive • Memorization heavy • Limited peer teaching, peer interactions, peer co-creation of knowledge	• Self-directed learning permits students to gloss over difficulty topics • Limited feedback from faculty facilitators • Insufficient familiarity with subject matter to self-identify knowledge gaps • Limited faculty guidance to foster cognitive bootstrapping, scaffolding, and flexibility • Absence of a conceptual framework for approaching the discipline

Challenges in current formats used in pharmacology education