Table 2.
The effects of antioxidant natural products on CVDs from experimental studies.
| Plants | Components | Study type | Subjects | Dose & Time | Effects and mechanisms | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Winged bean seed | Peptide |
In vitro
In vivo |
ACE and SD rats | 1 mM peptides, 3 h; 150 and 300 mg/kg BW, 24 h | Inhibiting ACE activity Lowering BP |
[61] |
| Solanum macrocarpon | Polyphenols |
In vitro
In vivo |
SHRs | 100 and 500 mg/kg BW | Inhibiting ACE/renin activities Lowering DBP and heart rate |
[62] |
| Citrus paradisi and Ocimum sanctum | Epigallocatechin gallate and quercetin | In vivo | SD rats | 2 g dried ground material in 200 mL water, 4 months | Reducing BP (renin and angiotensinogen↓) and reducing renal TG accumulation and lipid/protein oxidation (Citrus paradisi) Reducing BP via other mechanisms (Ocimum sanctum) |
[63] |
| Pigeon pea | Protein |
In vitro
In vivo |
ACE and SHRs | 100 mg/kg BW, 24 h | Inhibiting ACE/renin activities and scavenging free radicals Lowering BP |
[24] |
| Ficus deltoidea var. Kunstleri | NA | In vivo | SHRs | 500, 800, 1000, and 1300 mg/kg BW, 4 weeks | Lowering BP (ACE, angiotensin, aldosterone↓, and eNOS↑) and improving antioxidant capacity | [97] |
| Pueraria lobata | Puerarin | In vivo | SHRs | 40 and 80 mg/kg, 9 weeks | Lowering BP (eNOS, NO, and cGMP↑) | [98] |
| White mulberry fruit | Polysaccharides |
In vitro
In vivo |
Mesenteric artery and endothelial cells; SD rats and SHRs | 0.5 mg/mL; 5 mg/kg, 5 min | Inducing endothelium-dependent relaxation in rat mesenteric arteries and NO production in endothelial cells Lowering mean arterial BP |
[67] |
| Grape seed | Polyphenols | In vivo | Hypertensive rats | 375 mg/kg | Lowering BP (eNOS and Sirtuin-1↑) | [68] |
| Morus alba | Rutin |
In vitro
In vivo |
Mesenteric arteries; wild-type and eNOS-deficient mice |
8 mg/mL; 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg | Inducing endothelial vasorelaxation via a NO-dependent pathway Decreasing BP in wild-type mice, not in eNOS-deficient mice |
[66] |
| Phyllanthus niruri | NA |
In vitro
In vivo |
Endothelium-intact/denuded aorta rings; SHRs | 0.125-4 mg/mL; 1000 mg/kg BW, 2 weeks | Inducing vasorelaxation on endothelium-intact aorta rings Decreasing BP |
[99] |
| Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi | Baicalin |
In vitro
In vivo |
Thoracic aortas; SHRs | 0.1 mg/mL; 10, 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg BW, 0, 30, 60, 90, and 120 min | Relaxing SHR aortas in an endothelium-independent manner Reducing BP |
[100] |
| Heliotropium strigosum | Polyphenols | In vivo | Diabetic rabbits | 21 days | Improving lipid profile (TC, TG, and LDL-C↓) and lowering blood glucose | [25] |
| Mung bean sprouts | NA | In vivo | SD rats | 1 mL/200 g BW, 8 weeks | Lowering BP and improving lipid profile (LDL-C↓) | [72] |
| Red dragon fruit | NA | In vivo | SD rats | 4 weeks | Improving lipid profile (TC, TG, and LDL-C↓) and lowering blood glucose | [73] |
| Red dragon fruit peel | NA | In vivo | Hyperlipidemia male mice | 50, 100, 150, and 200 mg/kg BW, 30 days | Improving lipid profile (TC, TG↓, and HDL-C↑) | [74] |
| Citrus maxima | NA | In vivo | Wistar rats | 300 and 600 mg/kg BW, 14 days | Improving lipid profile (TC, TG↓, and HDL-C↑), lowering blood glucose, and increasing BW | [75] |
| Bitter melon | β-Sitosterol | In vivo | Hyperglycemia rats | 71.1 mg, 4 weeks | Improving lipid profile (TC, TG, LDL-C, fecal cholesterol secretion, cholesterol absorption↓, and HDL-C↑) and lowering blood glucose | [76] |
| Dried chokeberry | Anthocyanins | In vivo | SHRs | 50 mg/kg and 4 weeks | Ameliorating oxidative stress (TBARS↓ and FRAP↑) and lowering SBP and pulse pressure | [26] |
| Sweet cherry | Polyphenols | In vivo | Wistar rats | 5% and 10% (w/w) in food (fruits); 1% and 3% (w/w) in food (leaves), 12 weeks | Decreasing BW gain, ameliorating oxidative stress (SOD, GPx, CAT↑, and TBARS↓), and improving lipid profile (LDL-C+VLDL-C↓) | [82] |
| Wild rice | NA | In vivo | Hyperlipidemic rats | NA and 8 weeks | Ameliorating oxidative stress (TAC, SOD↑, and MAD↓), improving lipid profile (TG and TC↓), and mitigating inflammation (CRP and TNF-α↓) | [80] |
| Sambucus nigra L. | Polyphenols | In vivo | Wistar rats | 0.046 g/kg BW, 8 weeks | Ameliorating oxidative stress (TAC↑), lowering BP, and improving lipid profile (HDL-C↑) | [81] |
| Nepeta deflersiana | NA | In vivo | Wistar rats | 50 and 100 mg/kg BW, 25 days | Attenuating myocardial injuries, mitigating inflammation (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-10↓), and improving oxidative stress (CAT, SOD, NO↑, and MDA↓) | [29] |
| Spinach | Nitrate | In vivo | Swiss-Kunming mice | 15, 30, and 60 mg/kg of nitrate, 28 days | Mitigating inflammation (CRP, TNF-α, and IL-6↓) and improving vascular endothelial function (NO↑ and endothelin-1↓), lipid profile (TC, TG, LDL-C↓, and HDL-C↑), and insulin resistance | [88] |
| Zygophyllum album roots | NA | In vivo | Wistar rats | 400 mg/kg BW, 60 days | Attenuating myocardial injuries, improving oxidative stress (MDA, PC↓, CAT, SOD, and GPx↑), and mitigating inflammation (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and nuclear factor-kappa B↓) | [84] |
| Spinacia oleracea | Lutein | In vivo | Wistar rats | 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg BW | Ameliorating myocardial necrosis via mitigating inflammation (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6↓) | [89] |
| Antidesma bunius | NA | In vivo | SD rats | 0.38, 0.76, and 1.52 g/kg, 12 weeks | Improving oxidative stress (MDA↓) and mitigating inflammation (TNF-α, IL-6, VCAM-1, and MCP-1↓) | [90] |
| Rice bran | Protein | In vivo | SD rats | 250 and 500 mg/kg, 6 weeks | Lowering BP (ACE↓, NO, and eNOS↑) and reducing arterial stiffening, vascular remodeling, and oxidative stress (SOD and MDA↓) | [83] |
| Polygoni multiflori Radix | 2,3,5,4′-Tetrahydroxy-stilbene-2-O-beta-D-glucoside | In vivo | ApoE(-/-) mice | 1.125 mg/g, 8 weeks | Inhibiting atherosclerotic plaque formation, improving lipid profile (TG and ox-LDL↓), mitigating inflammation (TNF-α, IL-6, VCAM-1, and ICAM-1↓), and regulating gut microbiota composition (Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes, Akkermansia↑, Proteobacteria, Tenericutes, and Helicobacter pylori↓) | [28] |
| Wasabi | Allyl isothiocyanate | In vivo | Wistar rats | 5% (w/w) in food, 8 weeks | Regulating gut microbiota composition to prevent the development of hypertension (Allobaculum, Sutterella, Uncl. S247, Uncl. Coriobacteriaceae, and Bifidobacterium↑) | [93] |
| Lycium ruthenicum Murray | Anthocyanins | In vivo | C57BL/6 mice | 200 mg/kg, 12 weeks | Improving oxidative stress (TAC, SOD, GPx↑, and MDA↓) and inflammation (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β↓), regulating gut microbiota (Barnesiella, Alistipes, Eisenbergiella, Coprobacter, and Odoribacter↑), and increasing SCFA in cecal and feces | [94] |
| Tea | Polyphenols | In vivo | ApoE(-/-) mice | 1.6, 0.8, and 0.4 g/L tea polyphenols in drinking water | Lowering TC and LDL-C, decreasing the plaque area/lumen area, and promoting the proliferation of the intestinal Bifidobacteria | [95] |
| Berry mixture | Polyphenols | In vivo | Dahl salt-sensitive rats | 2 g, 9 weeks | Mitigating changes in the microbiota composition caused by the high-salt diet (phylum Bacteroidetes↑, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria↓) | [96] |
Note. NA: not available; SHRs: spontaneously hypertensive rats; SD rats: Sprague-Dawley rats; BW: body weight; w/w: weight in weight; BP: blood pressure; SBP: systolic blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; ACE: angiotensin-1 converting enzyme; NO: nitric oxide; eNOS: endothelial nitric oxide synthase; cGMP: cyclic guanosine monophosphate; TC: total cholesterol; TG: triglyceride; LDL-C: low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; HDL-C: high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; VLDL-C: very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; ox-LDL: oxidized low-density lipoprotein; TAC: total antioxidant capacity; FRAP: ferric ion-reducing antioxidant power; MDA: malondialdehyde; PC: protein carbonyls; TBARS: thiobarbituric acid reactive substances; SOD: superoxide dismutase; GPx: glutathione peroxidase; GR: glutathione reductase; CAT: catalase; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor α; CRP: C reactive protein; IL-1β: interleukin-1β; IL-6: interleukin-6; IL-10: interleukin-10: VCAM-1: vascular cell adhesion molecule 1; ICAM-1: intercellular adhesion molecule 1; MCP-1: monocyte chemotactic protein 1; SCFA: short-chain fatty acids.