Table 2.
Study characteristics (N = 20)
| Study | Location and study | Participantsa | Child age | Measures (mother/child/timing of administration/mechanisms) | Covariates | Data analysis | Tests of mediators/moderators | Tests of gender |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Barker et al. [64] |
England ALSPAC |
3298 mothers 24.3 years during pregnancy 8.3% low SES 3.7% single |
7–8 years |
Prenatal depression: Mother report, EPDS, 32 weeks Postnatal depression: None Later depression: Mother report, EPDS, 1.5 years Child outcome: Parent and teacher report, DAWBA, Externalising disorders (CD; ODD; ADHD) Mechanisms: N/A |
SES, marital status, teenage mother, substance use, criminal behaviour, cigarette smoking, prenatal and postnatal anxiety symptoms | Single path analytic model | No | Yes |
| Brennan et al. [49] | Australia |
4953 mothers 25.4 years at birth 92% Caucasian Working-lower middle class sample |
5 years |
Prenatal depression: Mother report, DSSI (trimester not specified) Postnatal depression: Mother report, DSSI, 3–4 days after birth and 6 months postpartum Later depression: Mother report, DSSI, 5 years Child outcome: Mother report, CBCL short form, total problems (aggression, oppositional behaviour, hyperactivity, anxiety, withdrawal, and depression) Mechanisms: N/A |
Gender and birth order of child; maternal age and education; family income; number of changes in marital status. Did not assess prenatal/postnatal anxiety |
Multiple regression ANCOVA |
No | Yes |
| Edwards and Hans [43] | United States |
196 mothers 18.3 years at birth All low income African American 69% in a relationship with biological father |
2 years |
Prenatal depression: Mother’s report, CES-D, pregnancy (trimester not specified) Postnatal depression: Not measured/reported Later depression: Mother’s report, CES-D, 24 months Child outcome: Mother report on BITSEA–Toddler behavior problems total score (externalising, dysregulation, atypical behaviours, and maladaptive behaviours) Mechanisms: Maternal sensitivity coded using the Parent–Child Observation Guide (PCOG) assessed at 24 months |
Neonatal problems (pre-term birth, low birth weight, Apgar score), neonatal special care admission; maternal age, smoking and verbal ability; parental relationship quality. Did not assess prenatal/postnatal anxiety | Path analysis | Yes | Yes |
| Eichler et al. [65] |
Germany Franconian Cognition and Emotion Studies |
204 mothers 32.8 years at birth 10% ethnic minority 87% living with biological father Average family income 3000-4000 Euros |
6-9 years |
Prenatal depression: Mother report, EPDS, third trimester Postnatal depression: Not measured/reported Later depression: Mother report, EPDS, 6-9 years Child: Mother report, Antisocial behaviour symptoms questionnaire, items of the diagnostic system for psychiatric disorders ICD-10 |
Family status, gestational age, APGAR score, offspring gender. Did not assess prenatal/postnatal anxiety | ANCOVA | No | Yes |
| Gjerde et al. [61] |
Norway Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study (MoBa) |
11,599 mothers Demographics not reported |
1.5, 3, and 5 years |
Prenatal depression: Mother report on depression, short form of the SCL, 17 weeks, 30 weeks Postnatal depression: Mother report on depression, short form of the SCL, 6 months Later depression: Mother report on depression, short form of the SCL, 1.5, 3 and 5 years Child: Mother report on CBCL externalising scale |
Child age, gender, maternal parity, education, familial confounding via a sibling comparison. Did not assess prenatal/postnatal anxiety | Latent growth curve analysis | Yes | No |
| Hanington et al. [44] |
England ALSPAC |
14,541 mothers 97.4% white 50.6% skilled workers |
3 years |
Prenatal depression: Mother completed the EPDS 2nd trimester Postnatal depression: Mother completed the EPDS, 8 months Later depression: None Child: Mother report on Rutter Revised pre-school scales (conduct problems) 42 months |
Marital conflict, maternal education, paternal depression. Did not assess prenatal/postnatal anxiety |
Logistic regression Mediation analysis |
Yes | No |
| Hay et al. [51] |
England SCLDS |
122 mothers 25.8 years at birth 72% Caucasian 89% working class |
11 years |
Prenatal depression: Trained doctors conducted the CIS at 14 weeks and 36 weeks Postnatal depression: CIS at 3 months, 1 year Later depression: Trained research assistants administered SADS at 4 years, 11 years Child outcome: Mother, teachers and children reported on violent symptoms using SDQ, research assistants conducted the CAPA with primary care-giver and children at aged 11 years |
Social class, financial problems, family structure, parental criminality, child sex. Did not assess prenatal/postnatal anxiety | Structural equation modelling | No | Yes |
| Hay et al. [48] |
England SCLDS |
120 mothers 26.7 years at birth 65% married at birth 88% working class 72% Caucasian |
16 years |
Prenatal depression: Two doctors interviewed mothers using the CIS to generate ICD-9 diagnoses of depression at 14 and 36 weeks Postnatal depression: Two doctors interviewed mothers using the CIS at 3 and 12 months Later depression: Trained researchers administered the SADS at 4, 11 and 16 years Child outcome: Primary care-giver and children interviewed separately using the CAPA. Arrest history. 16 years |
Social class, maternal education, cultural background, mother’s age at birth, marital status, two-parent family structure; mother’s intellectual ability; prenatal anxiety symptoms, smoking and drinking; mother’s antisocial behaviour |
Logistic regression Markov chain analysis |
No | Yes |
| Hay et al. [47] |
England SLCDS |
121 mothers 26.2 years 64% married; 88% working class 72% Caucasian |
11 and 16 years |
Prenatal depression: GPs interviewed mothers, using the CIS, 14-20 weeks, 36 weeks Postnatal depression: GPs interviewed mothers using CIS, 3 months, 12 months Later depression: Mother’s interviewed using the SADS at 4, 11 and 16 years Child outcome: Parents and children interviewed separately using the CAPA, 11 and 16 years |
Prenatal anxiety, smoking and alcohol, breastfeeding; mother’s intellectual ability; mother’s symptoms of juvenile conduct disorder | Logistic and linear regression | No | Yes |
| Korhonen et al. [70] | Tampere, Finland |
191 mothers 44 years at last assessment 82% married; 59% upper class |
16–17 years |
Prenatal depression: Mother report, EPDS, last trimester Postnatal depression: Mother report, EPDS, 2 months Later depression: Mother report, EPDS, 16–17 years old Child outcome: Mother reported, CBCL; Adolescents completed YSR, 16–17 years |
Mother’s education; marital status; number of biological children; gender; maternal age. Did not assess prenatal/postnatal anxiety | Linear and logistic regression | No | Yes |
| Korhonen et al. [69] | Tampere, Finland |
191 mothers 44 years at last assessment 82% married; 59% upper social status |
16–17 years |
Prenatal depression: Mother report, EPDS, 3rd trimester Postnatal depression: Mother report, EPDS, 1 week, 2 and 6 months Later depression: Mother report, EPDS, 4–5, 8–9 and 16–17 years old Child outcome: Mother reported, CBCL; Adolescents completed the YSR, 16-17 years |
Analyses of the impact of covariates not reported. Did not assess prenatal/postnatal anxiety | Linear regression and trajectory analyses | No | No |
| Lahti et al. [66] |
Finland Prediction of Preeclampsia (PREDO) |
2296 mothers 31.9 years |
1.9–5.9 years |
Prenatal depression; Mother report on the CES-Depression Scale, biweekly up to 14 times throughout pregnancy beginning 12 weeks Postnatal depression: Not measured/reported Later depression: Mother report on the BDI (1.9–5.9 years) Child outcome: Mother report on the CBCL (1.9–5.9y ears) |
Maternal age, parity, education level, family structure. Prenatal smoking, psychotropic drug exposure, chronic hypertension, type 1 diabetes. Child gender, gestational length, birthweight, family structure. Did not assess prenatal/postnatal anxiety | Linear/Tobit regression, mediation analyses | No | No |
| Leis et al. [71] |
England ALSPAC |
2891 mothers 29.1 years at birth 98.9% white 83.5% married 42.5% skilled non manual |
11 years |
Prenatal depression: Mother report, EPDS at 8 weeks, 32 weeks Postnatal depression: Mother report, EPDS, 21 Later depression: Mother report, EPDS 33, 61, 73 months, 11 years Child outcome: Mother and teacher report, SDQ, 11 years |
Maternal anxiety symptoms; sociodemographic variables including marital status; maternal age at birth; child birthweight; child gender; maternal education achievement; cigarette smoking | Linear regression | No | No |
| Luoma et al. [67] | Finland |
270 mothers 37.4 years at last assessment |
8–9 years |
Prenatal depression: Mother report, EPDS 3rd trimester Postnatal depression: Mother report using EPDS, 1 week, 2 months, 6 months postpartum Later depression: Mother report using EPDS, 8–9 years Child outcome: Mother and teacher report, CBCL, TRF 8–9 years |
Mother’s education, marital status, age, family SES, number of children in the family, child gender. Did not assess prenatal/postnatal anxiety | Logistic regression | No | No |
| O’Connor et al. [62] |
England ALSPAC |
7442 mothers 28 years in pregnancy 45% first time mothers |
4 years |
Prenatal depression: Mother report, EPDS, 18 weeks, 32 weeks Postnatal depression: Mother report, EPDS, 8 weeks, 8 months Later depression: None Child outcome: Parent report, SDQ (total scale), 47 months |
Maternal education, gestational age, smoking, child gender and prenatal anxiety |
Logistic and ordinary least regression | No | Yes |
| O’Donnell et al. [72] |
England ALSPAC |
7944 mothers 28.22 years at birth |
4, 7, 9, 11 and 13 years |
Prenatal depression: Mother report, EPDS, 18 weeks, 32 weeks Postnatal depression: Mother report, EPDS, 8 weeks, 33 months Later depression: Mother report, EPDS, 33 months Child outcome: Mother report, SDQ, 4 years, 7 years, 9 years, 11.5 years, 13 years |
Prenatal anxiety. Paternal anxiety and depression. Maternal age, education, household crowding, positive parenting behaviours at age 2. Prenatal smoking; alcohol/substance use. Birth weight, gestational age |
Trajectory analysis |
No | Yes |
| Raskin et al. [60] | United States |
400 mothers 18.5 years at assessment 35% White |
2 years |
Prenatal depression: Mother report, CES-D, either 1st (14%), 2nd (49%) or 3rd (30) trimester (8% unknown) Postnatal depression: Mother report, CES-D, 12 months Child outcome: Mother report, Brief Infant–Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment, 2 years |
Gestational age, birth weight, Apgar score, birth/delivery complications. Did not assess prenatal/postnatal anxiety | Latent growth curve modelling | No | No |
| Soe et al. [63] |
Singapore GUSTO |
258 mothers | 2 years |
Prenatal depression: Mother report, EPDS, 26 weeks. Postnatal depression: Mother report, EPDS, 3 months Child outcome: Mother report, CBCL, 24 months |
Ethnicity, prenatal smoking exposure, household income. Did not assess prenatal/postnatal anxiety | Linear regression | No | Yes |
| van der Waerden et al. [68] |
France EDEN |
1183 mothers 30.1 years |
5 years |
Prenatal: Maternal reports, CES-depression, pregnancy Postnatal depression: Maternal reports, EPDS, 4 months, 8 months, 12 months Later depression: Maternal reports, CES-D, 3 years, 5 years Child outcome: Maternal report, SDQ, 5 years |
Maternal age, education, prenatal anxiety, substance abuse, use of antidepressants. Low family income, number of siblings, child care arrangements, domestic violence, child sex, premature birth | Growth trajectory analyses, linear regression | No | No |
| Woolhouse et al. [9] | Australia |
1507 30.9 years at birth 60.7% married’ 30.9 years |
4 years |
Prenatal depression: Mother report, EPDS, 15 weeks Postnatal depression: Mother report, EPDS, 3 months, 6 months, 12 months Later depression: Mother report, EPDS, 4 years Child outcome: Mother report, SDQ, 4 years |
Maternal age, country of birth, education level. Relationship and employment status, family income, number of children and relationship transitions since pregnancy. Did not assess prenatal/postnatal anxiety | Mediation analyses | No | Yes |
MD Maternal Depression, Q quality rating, EPDS, Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, DAWBA Development and Wellbeing Assessment, CBCL Child Behaviour Checklist, TRF Teacher Report Form, CES Centre for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale, CIS Clinical Interview Schedule, SADS Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia, SCL Symptom Checklist, DSSI Delusions Symptoms States Inventory, GAS Global Assessment Scale, SDQ Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, CAPA Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment, YSR Youth Self Report, BDI Beck Depression Inventory, BITSEA Brief Infant–Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment, ALSPAC Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, SLCDS South London Child Development Study, CD conduct disorder, ODD Oppositional Defiant Disorder, ADHD Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, DBD Disruptive Behavioural Disorders (DSM-IV Conduct disorder/Oppositional Defiant Disorder)
aInformation on maternal age, ethnicity, relationship status and socioeconomic status was not reported in all studies