Table 1.

Phytochemicals in gynecological cancer prevention: classification, natural occurrence, and application.

Phytochemicals	Classification			Natural Occurrence	Application with References
	Group	Subgroup	Class		Cervical Cancer	Endometrial Cancer	Ovarian Cancer
Quercetin	Polyphenols	Flavonoids	Flavonols	Onion, kale, leek, broccoli, buckwheat, red grapes, tea, apples	[16,17]	[18]	[19,20]
Kaempferol	Polyphenols	Flavonoids	Flavonols		[21]	[22]	[23]
Rutin	Polyphenols	Flavonoids	Flavonols	Cpers, olives, buckwheat, asparagus	[24]	ND	ND
Apigenin	Polyphenols	Flavonoids	Flavones	Clery, herbs, parsley, chamomile, rooibos tea, capsicum pepper	[25]	[26]	[27]
Luteolin	Polyphenols	Flavonoids	Flavones		[17]	ND	[28]
Genistein	Polyphenols	Flavonoids	Isoflavones	Soya, beans, chickpeas, alfalfa, peanuts	[29]	[30]	[31]
Daidzein	Polyphenols	Flavonoids	Isoflavones		ND	[30]	[32]
Naringenin	Polyphenols	Flavonoids	Flavanones	Citrus fruit	[33]	[34]	ND
Hesperitin	Polyphenols	Flavonoids	Flavanones		[35]	[36]	[37]
Anthocyanidins	Polyphenols	Flavonoids	-	Red grapes, blueberries, cherries, strawberries, blackberries, raspberries	[38]	ND	ND
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG)	Polyphenols	Flavonoids	Flavan–3–ols tannins	Tea, chocolate, grapes	[39]	[40,41]	[42,43]
Silymarin	Polyphenols	Flavonoids	Flavanolols	Milk thistle, red onions	[44]	ND	[45]
Silibinin	Polyphenols	Flavonoids	Flavanolols		[46]	[47]	[48]
Gallic acid	Polyphenols	Phenolic acids	Hydrobenzoic acids	Blackberries, grape seed, pomegranate, raspberries, tea, vanilla	[49]	ND	[50]
Ellagic acid	Polyphenols	Phenolic acids	Hydrobenzoic acids		[51,52]	[53]	[54]
Vanillic acid	Polyphenols	Phenolic acids	Hydrobenzoic acids		ND	[53]	ND
Ferulic acid	Polyphenols	Phenolic acids	Hydroxycinnamic acids	Blueberries, cinnamon, coffee, kiwi fruit, plums, wheat bran	[55]	ND	ND
Caffeic acid	Polyphenols	Phenolic acids	Hydroxycinnamic acids		[56]	[57,58]	[59]
Curcumin	Polyphenols	Non-flavonoid polyphenols	Curcuminoids	Turmeric	[51,60]	[61]	[62]
Cinnamic acid	Polyphenols	Non-flavonoid polyphenols	Stilbenes	Blueberries, grapes, peanuts, raspberries, wine	[63]	ND	ND
Resveratrol	Polyphenols	Non-flavonoid polyphenols	Stilbenes		[64]	[65]	[66,67]
Enterolactone	Polyphenols	Non-flavonoid polyphenols	Lignans	Grains, flaxseed, sesame seeds	ND	[68]	[69]
Sesamin	Polyphenols	Non-flavonoid polyphenols	Lignans		[70]	ND	ND
+Alpha–, beta–, gamma–carotene	Terpenoids	Carotenoid terpenoids	-	Carrots, kale, pumpkin, sweet potato	[71]	ND	[72,73]
Zeaxanthin	Terpenoids	Carotenoid terpenoids	-	Corn, eggs, kale, spinach, red pepper, pumpkin, oranges	[71]	ND	ND
Lycopene	Terpenoids	Carotenoid terpenoids	-	Tomatoes watermelon, pink grapefruit, guava, papaya	[71,74]	ND	[75,76,77]
Astaxanthin	Terpenoids	Carotenoid terpenoids	-	Salmon, shrimp, krill, crab	ND	ND	[78]
Saponins	Terpenoids	Non-carotenoid terpenoids	-	Chickpeas, soya beans	[79]	[80]	[81]
Perillyl alcohol	Terpenoids	Non-carotenoid terpenoids	-	Caraway seeds, cherries, mint	ND	ND	[82]
Siosterol	Terpenoids	Non-carotenoid terpenoids	Phytosterols	Vegetable oils, cereal grains, nuts, shoots, seeds and their oils, whole grains, legumes	[83]	ND	ND
Stigmasterol	Terpenoids	Non-carotenoid terpenoids	Phytosterols		ND	[84]	[85]
Ursolic acid	Terpenoids	Non-carotenoid terpenoids	-	Apples, cranberries, peppermint, prunes, oregano, thyme	[86]	[87]	[88,89]
Ginkgolide and bilobalide	Terpenoids	Non-carotenoid terpenoids	-	Ginkgo biloba	[90]	ND	[91]
Isothiocyanates	Thiols	-	Glucosinolates	Cruciferous vegetables such as asparagus, broccoli, Brussel sprouts, cauliflower, horseradish, mustard, radish, sprouts	[92]	[93]	[94]
Allicin	Thiols	-	Allylic sulfides	Garlic, leeks, onions	[95]	[96]	[97]
Indole–3–carbinol (I3C)	Thiols	-	Indoles	Broccoli, brussel, sprouts	[98]	ND	[99]
Betaines	Others	-	-	Beetroot	[100]	ND	ND
Capsaicin	Others	-	-	Chili	ND	ND	[101]
Piperine	Others	-	-	Black peppers	[102]	ND	[103,104]

ND—no data.