Table 1.
Summary of common techniques to fabricate nanofibrous scaffolds for tissue engineering applications.
| Technique | Advantages | Disadvantages | Example | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Solvent casting/Particulate Leaching techniques | Control over porosity, pore size and crystallinity | Use of highly toxic solvents Labor intensive fabrication process Residual particles in the polymer matrix Irregular shaped pores Insufficient interconnectivity |
PLGA a/Gelatin as scaffolds for cell-based artificial organs. Findings: Enhanced cells adhesion and proliferation of chondrocytes and smooth muscles. |
[58] |
| Gas foaming | Free of harsh organic solvent Control over porosity, pore size and fiber diameter |
Formation of a non-porous matrix resulted from rapid diffusion of gas away from the surface Lack of interconnectivity between pores. |
PCL a/Gelatin as scaffolds for new tissue regeneration Findings: The human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) were able to colonize the outer and inner regions of the scaffolds. |
[63] |
| Thermally-induced Phase separation/Porogen leaching | Versatile Control over pore size when combined with other techniques Great control over the 3D shape |
Little control over fiber diameter and orientation Time-consuming |
Pure gelatin based scaffold for Tissue engineering applications Findings: The 3D shape with porous and nanofibrous scaffolds has induced a higher level of osteocalcin and bone sialoprotein expression (bone markers). |
[59,64] |
| Wet spinning | Large surface area for cell attachment and rapid diffusion of the nutrients in favor of cell survival and growth | Poor mechanical properties. | Chitosan based scaffolds for bone tissue engineering Finding: The scaffolds allowed significant cell proliferation of osteoblast and exhibited good attachment and developed bridging between cells via filopodia structures. |
[65,66] |
| Fiber bonding | Produce highly porous scaffolds with interconnected pores | The solvent used could be toxic to the cells if not completely remove | PGA a/PLLA a as polymeric scaffolds for Cell-based artificial liver Findings: A higher degree of interaction between hepatocytes and porous scaffolds after 18 hours of cultivation. Major interaction between cell-cell rather than cell-polymer was observed after 1week of cultivation. |
[67,68] |
| Self-assembly | The scaffolds can be modified. Do not produce synthetic degradation by-products The scaffolds provide the opportunity to incorporate modified variants containing quite large bioactive motifs or domain |
Expensive material and complex design parameters. | Peptide as natural based scaffolds for promising scaffolds for the study of cell signal pathway Findings: The functionalized peptides that underwent self-assembly into nanofiber structures have significantly enhanced the neural cell survival without additional extra growth factors. |
[60] |
| Rapid prototyping | Produce scaffolds with a fully interconnected pore structure. Full control over porosity, pore size, pore shape and permeability. |
Highly expensive equipment | HA a/PCL a as scaffolds for bone tissue engineering Findings: The high surface area of the scaffolds favors the adhesion and growth of the osteoblast. |
[69] |
| Electrospinning | Inexpensive. Simple set-up. High surface area to volume ratio. Ease of fiber functionalization.Ease of material hybridization. Possibility of scaling–up the process for mass production. |
The solvents used could be toxic to the cells if not completely removed. The process depends on many variables. |
PCL a/Gelatin hybrid scaffolds for peripheral nerve regeneration Findings: The scaffolds offered a more mimicking micro and macro environment for peripheral nerve regeneration by providing excellent substrate delivery to guide axons regeneration. |
[70,71] |
a Abbreviations: PLGA, Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid); PCL, Polycaprolactone; PGA, Poly(glycolic acid); PLLA, Poly(L-lactic acid); HA, Hydroxyapatite.