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Schematic illustration of the direct (continuous black arrow) and indirect (dotted black arrow) effects of butyrate on the regulation of host metabolic functions. Butyrate positive effects are indicated with a green arrow, negative ones are indicated with red arrows. Abbreviations: Tregs: T regulatory cells; MCT1: Monocarboxylate transporter 1; GLP-1: Glucagon-like peptide 1; PYY: Peptide YY; NPY: Neuropeptide Y; PPARs: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors.
