Table 3.
Modifiable risk factors for AMD.
| Factor | Characteristics | Increased Risk | Suggested Method of Action |
|---|---|---|---|
| Smoking | Current smokers | 4.55 fold nvAMD * [57] | Direct oxidation of RPE [4] |
| Depletion of antioxidants [58] | |||
| Former smokers | 1.54 fold nvAMD * [57] | Activation of Complement [59] | |
| * compared to having never smoked | Atherosclerotic vascular changes [60] | ||
| Alcohol | Heavy drinker (daily alcoholic beverages >4) | RR 6.51 nvAMD * [37] | Oxidative stress [61] |
| * compared to subjects with 0 g Alcohol/day, adjusted for age and gender | |||
| BMI | Obesity (≥30 kg/m2) | 32% increase incidence of late AMD [55] | Oxidative stress [62] |
| Diet | Mediterranean diet | −26% lower risk of progression to advanced (nvAMD or GA) AMD [2] | Certain foods are retino-protective or rich in anti-oxidants [63,64] |
| Western diet | +56% increase in early AMD | ||
| +270% increase advanced AMD [2] |