Table 1.
Study characteristics and dengue positivity among non-human primates.
| Animal Types | Country | Location | Site Setting | Study Period | Dengue RT-PCR Positive Only (%); Serotype | Dengue Serology Positive Only (%); Serotype | Serological Test Type; Serotype Tested | Human Dengue Cases; Serotype | Dengue Serotype (Mosquitoes) | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Monkeys | Philippines | Animal Breeding Facility | Urban/rural | 2010 | 2/9 (22.2); D2.Asian Epidemic DENV (NS1 & E)⁎, D2.Asian Epidemic DENV (NS1)⁎ | 21/100 (21.0); D1,2,3 | PRNT; Tested for D1/2/3/4 | Remarkably high number of DENV cases was reported in 2010, more than triple the number reported in 2009 & Number of cases exceeded the Alert and Epidemic thresholds. |
[40] | |
| Monkeys | Asia | Imported Samples | Unknown | Before 1984 | 145/358 (40.5); D1,2,3,4 | PRNT; Tested for D1/2/3/4 | [43] | |||
| India | 0/33 | PRNT; Tested for D1 only | ||||||||
| Japan | 1/37 (2.7); D2 | PRNT; Unspecified | ||||||||
| Monkeys | Philippines | Luzon Island, Monkey Farm (Monkeys originated from Zamboanga in Mindanao island and Tanay) |
Forest | 1999 | 2/54 (3.7) | ELISA; Unspecified | 35.2% and 16.9% of confirmed DENV and probable DENV cases in 770 patients | [28] | ||
| Monkeys | Sri Lanka | Nature & Archaeological Reserve at Polonnaruwa | Forest | 1986 | 2/16 (12) | ELISA; Unspecified | 1986–1987 epizootic | [33] | ||
| 1987 | 41/44 (94) | ELISA; Unspecified | ||||||||
| 1995 | 52/244 (21); D2 | ELISA; Tested for D2 only | ||||||||
| Monkey | Sri Lanka | Nature & Archaeological Reserve at Polonnaruwa | Forest | 1987 | 64/68 (94); D2 | PRNT; Tested for D2 only | All 4 serotypes isolated from humans before | [32] | ||
| Monkeys | Puerto Rico | Southwestern Region | Urban/rural | 2010 & 2012 | 23/23 (100); D1, 3, 4 | MNT; Tested for D1/2/3/4 | Circulation of all 4 DENV types during 1992 to 2012. | [42] | ||
| Orang Utans | Malaysia | Sabah | Forest (Free Ranging) | 1996–1998 | 11/40 (28) | IFA/ELISA; Unspecified | [23] | |||
| Forest (Semi-captive) | 10/31 (32) | |||||||||
| Orang Utans | Malaysia | Sabah | Forest (Wild) | 1996–1997 | 11/40 (28); D2 | PRNT; Tested for D2 only | Denv-2 seroprevalence in native Bornean and migrants at 11/30 (37%) and 59/80 (74%) respectively. Humans sampled lived or worked on the boundaries of the Sepilok Forest Reserve. | [22] | ||
| Forest (Semi-captive) | 10/31 (32); D2 | |||||||||
| Monkeys | Nigeria | Nupeko Forest | Forest | 1969 (Lowland monkeys) 1971–1972 (Nupeko monkeys) | 45/92 (48.9); D2 | PRNT; Tested for D2 only | 486/1275 (38%) and 811/1816 (45%) seropositivity in humans by HI and PRNT respectively. | [25] | ||
| Galagos | 3/12 (25%); D2 | |||||||||
| NHP | Kenya | Kwale & Kakamega County (Western & Coastal) |
Forest | 2014 | 14/34 (41%) (Coastal); 5/33 (15%) (Western); D1,2,3,4 | ELISA; Tested for D1/2/3/4 | [29] | |||
| Monkeys | Brazil | Atlantic Forest, Bahia, Northeast Brazil, municipalities of Ilhéus and Una | Forest (Free Ranging) | 2006–2014 | 31/110 (28.2); D1,2,3,4 | HI; Tested for D1/2/3/4 | D1,2,3,4 are endemic to both municipalities with sporadic outbreaks | [36] | ||
| Monkeys | Brazil | Atlantic forest (Border of Pernambuco and Paraíba States) | Forest (Free Ranging) | 2015–2016 | 14/49 (28.6); D1,2,3,4 | PRNT; Tested for D1/2/3/4 | D1, 2, 3 and 4 are endemic to the human population | [34] | ||
| Zoo & Wildlife Screening and Recovery Center, Recife | Urban/rural (Captive) | |||||||||
| NHP, Monkeys | Brazil | Zoos in Salvador, Brasília, Itapetinga National primate centre in Cabedelo, Salvador, Vitória da Conquista & Barreiras. Urban & Peri Urban sites; Lucena, Sapé & Santa Rita, |
Urban/Rural | 2012–2017 | 0/207 (Tested against Flavivirus) | 2/6 (33.3); D1 | PRNT; Tested for D1 only | [39] | ||
| NHP, Monkeys | Venezuela | Parque Zoológico Bararida, Barquisimeto, Parque Zoológico El Pinar, Caracas & Guri dick (8 free living) | Urban (Captive) & Forest (Free-ranging) |
Before 2006 | 2/62 (3.2); D2 | HI; Tested for D2 only | Dengue highly endemic in Venezuela since 1989. | [31] | ||
| Argentina | Unknown | Unknown | 0/4 | |||||||
| NHP, Monkeys | Costa Rica | 31 Lowlands locations | Forest & Urban/rural (Private land) | 1993–1996, 2000–2012 | 8/155 (5.2); D2,3,4 (C/prM) | 53/209 (25.4) (Tested against flavivirus) | ELISA | Co-circulation of D1,2,3,4 since re-emergence in 1993. | [26] | |
| NHP, Monkeys | Malaysia | Unknown | Forest | 1962–1964 | 139/221 (62.9); D2 | PRNT; Tested for D2 only | [35] | |||
| NHP, Monkeys | French Guiana | Petit Saut Hydroelectric Dam | Forest | 1994–1995 | 0/145 | PRNT; Tested for D2 only | Dramatic increase in cases over the past 30 years, epidemic in 1991–1992 with up to 3000 cases. | [37] | ||
| Mandrill | Gabon | Lope National Park | Forest | 1998–2006 | 2/25 (8); D2 | PRNT; Tested for D2 only | [30] | |||
| NHP, Monkeys | Congo Basin; Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo & Rwanda | Bwindi forest, Park National of the Volcanoes, Kinigi & Unknown locations | Forest | 2001–2009 | 0/44 | |||||
| NHP, Monkeys | Panama | Localities near the Canal zone (unknown setting) | Urban/rural | 1954–1955 | 2/105 (1.9); D1,2 | HI; Tested against D1/2 only (Only 2 positive samples further tested using PRNT) |
Dengue epidemic in 1904, 1912, late 1941 to early 1942. At least one local outbreak occurred during 1934–1936. Sporadic cases observed in 1946. 57/213 (27%) residents of Caledonia (non-forested area) with D1/2 HI antibodies 195/892 (22%) residents of forested areas of Panama with D1/2 HI antibodies. |
[41] | ||
| NHP, Monkeys | Senegal | Forest Gallery Near Ngari | Forest | 2000 | 0/17; D2 | ELISA; Tested for D2 only | D2 (Aedes furcifer, A. taylori, A. luteocephalus, A. aegypti) | [24] | ||
| NHP, Monkeys | Thailand | Chiang Mai (Captive Monkey) | Urban/rural | 2008–2009 | 7/21 (33) | PRNT; Tested for D1/2/3/4 but results unspecified | 6052 cases of DHF in 2008 & 2009. | [38] | ||
| Chiang Rai (Captive Monkey) | 1/12 (8.3) | 1974 cases of DHF in 2008 & 2009. | ||||||||
| Maehongsorn (Captive Monkey) | 1/5 (20) | 942 cases of DHF in 2008 & 2009. | ||||||||
| NHP, Monkeys | Argentina | San Cayetano, Corrientes | Forest | 2010 | 0/51 (Tested against flavivirus; NS5) | 36/108 (33.3); D1,3 | PRNT; Tested against D1/3 only | Indigenous circulation of DENV in Northern and Central Argentina since 1988. | [27] | |
| Isla del Cerrito | ||||||||||
| Isla Brasilera |
⁎
Phylogenetic analysis linked to human cases.