Table 3.

The technological approaches for the treatment of COVID-19 contaminated waste.

Criteria	Preferred technologies		Secondary preferred technologies			Emergency solutions
	Autoclave/steam sterilization	Microwave	Twin chamber incineration	Brick built de-montfort incinerators	Barrel incinerators with air induction	Onsite pit burial
Condition	Static or mobile	Static or mobile	Static or mobile	Static	Mobile	Static
Cost	Low	Medium	Medium	Low	Low	Low
Scale of technology	200-10,000 L/cycle	30–500 L/cycle	50–2000 kg/h	15–50 kg	8–25 kg/h	5–10 tons of waste
Suitable for/type of waste	•Soiled wastes •bedding and PPE •clinical laboratory waste •reusable instruments •waste sharps •glassware	•Soiled wastes •bedding and PPE •clinical laboratory waste •reusable instruments •waste sharps •glassware	•Soiled wastes •bedding and PPE •human anatomical wastes •chemical wastes •laboratory waste	•Soiled wastes •PPE •Chemical and laboratory wastes	•Soiled wastes •PPE •Chemical and laboratory wastes	•Soiled wastes •PPE •Clinical laboratory waste •Disposable instruments
Pollution control	Reduced air pollution	Negligible to no air emissions	•Acceptable emissions and 90% volume reduction •Secondary combustion chamber, temperature controls and air pollution control equipment	Negligible to air emissions	Air induction cyclonic system	No emission
Time of scale	30–60 min per cycle, 121–134 °C	30–250 kg/h in cycles of 30–60 min	8-h cycles receiving multiple batches of waste High temperature (>850 °C)	6-h cycles with 1–3 batches of waste High temperature (>850 °C)	6-h cycles with multiple batches of waste Medium temperature (>650 °C)	Short
Complexity	Simple	Simple	Mandatory training	Simple	Use operating manual	Layers of waste with daily soil cover until full
Weakness/drawbacks	•No volume reduction •Odor generation, •Remained waste must be landfilled	•No volume reduction •Remained waste must be landfilled •Need regular maintenance	•Higher capital and operational costs •Poor emissions if the equipment is low quality •Potential of formation and release of PCDD/PCDF •Need regular maintenance	•Short life span (3–5 years) •Initial incineration will produce black smoke due to the fuel source •Potential of formation and release of PCDD/PCDF	•Short life span (2–3 years) •The poor feedstock may lead to poor emissions •Potential of formation and release of PCDD/PCDF	•Potential for leachate and releases to water and land •Short term solution •Will be fled in quickly
Application tips	•Pair it with the shredding of material for volume reduction •Break down the PPE before landfilled to avoid waste picking and reuse	•Use a HEPA filter to avoid toxic contaminants release •Re-bag reduced waste volumes before sending them to landfill	•Have a cool down cycle to enable safe ash removal •Encapsulate hazardous ash waste •Make sure emissions controls are in place	•Use good design quality material to build a safe model. •Operate well to maintain acceptable emissions. •Avoid overloading •Have a cool down cycle to enable safe ash removal	•Temporal back-up technology to ease overburden of waste materials •Suitable for remote sites •Have a cool-down cycle to enable safe ash removal •Fly ash easily removed	•Secure the site from waste pickers •Site it away from water abstraction points, waterways, crops and communities •Use gauze cover to avoid vermin and odors •Never conduct open burning