Table 2. Risk Factors Associated With Seropositivitya.
| Characteristic | Participants, No. (%) (N = 4675)b | OR (95% CI) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Univariable model | Multivariable modelc | ||
| Geographic region | |||
| East | 976 (20.9) | 0.68 (0.24-1.92) | 0.92 (0.35-2.40) |
| North | 1001 (21.4) | 1.70 (0.85-3.39) | 1.30 (0.55-3.11) |
| Northwest | 994 (21.3) | 0.40 (0.17-0.94) | 0.38 (0.15-0.98) |
| Southwest | 839 (17.9) | 0.33 (0.12-0.93) | 0.54 (0.18-1.62) |
| Central | 865 (18.5) | 1.0 [Reference] | 1.0 [Reference] |
| Age range, y | |||
| ≥50 | 2319 (49.6) | 0.44 (0.26-0.76) | 0.93 (0.50-1.75) |
| 18-49 | 2356 (50.4) | 1.0 [Reference] | 1.0 [Reference] |
| Sex | |||
| Male | 1556 (33.3) | 0.96 (0.55-1.67) | NA |
| Female | 3119 (66.7) | 1.0 [Reference] | |
| Race | |||
| Black or African American | 942 (20.1) | 1.19 (0.64-2.23) | 1.19 (0.49-2.86) |
| Asian | 281 (6.0) | 0.53 (0.14-1.98) | 0.61 (0.15-2.51) |
| ≥2 Races or other raced | 354 (7.6) | 0.80 (0.30-2.15) | 0.61 (0.19-2.04) |
| White | 3098 (66.3) | 1.0 [Reference] | 1.0 [Reference] |
| Ethnicity | |||
| Hispanic | 396 (8.5) | 6.85 (3.85-12.16) | 3.56 (1.76-7.21) |
| Non-Hispanic | 4279 (91.5) | 1.0 [Reference] | 1.0 [Reference] |
| Health insurance as of January 1, 2020 | |||
| Medicaide | 530 (11.3) | 1.72 (0.66-4.50) | 1.78 (0.67-4.76) |
| Medicare | 886 (19.0) | 0.73 (0.32-1.69) | 1.14 (0.43-3.00) |
| Military, TRICARE, or Veterans Administration | 174 (3.7) | 0.37 (0.05-2.75) | 0.45 (0.06-3.39) |
| None or uninsured | 152 (3.3) | 3.35 (1.41-7.96) | 2.24 (0.86-5.78) |
| Private (employer or individual) | 2857 (61.1) | 1.0 [Reference] | 1.0 [Reference] |
| Reason for visiting clinic | |||
| Prevention or well visit | 1127 (24.1) | 1.01 (0.40-2.60) | NA |
| Routine visit for previous condition | 2907 (62.2) | 0.93 (0.39-2.24) | |
| Other or don’t know | 160 (3.4) | 0.75 (0.15-3.66) | |
| New or acute illness or injury | 478 (10.2) | 1.0 [Reference] | |
| High-risk health condition | |||
| Yes | 1854 (39.7) | 0.85 (0.46-1.57) | NA |
| No | 2786 (59.6) | 1.0 [Reference] | |
| Type of residence | |||
| Otherf | 1186 (25.4) | 2.88 (1.67-4.98) | 2.55 (1.25-5.22) |
| Single-family home | 3489 (74.6) | 1.0 [Reference] | 1.0 [Reference] |
| People in household, median (IQR) | |||
| Adults | 2 (0-1.0) | 1.15 (1.03-1.29) | 1.11 (0.99-1.24) |
| Children | 0 (0-1.0) | 1.38 (1.16-1.63) | 1.16 (0.92-1.46) |
| Worked outside the home since March 23, 2020, h/wk | |||
| ≤20 | 482 (10.3) | 1.29 (0.63-2.61) | NA |
| >20 | 1363 (29.2) | 0.82 (0.39-1.75) | |
| None | 2827 (60.5) | 1.0 [Reference] | |
| Worked in health care setting since March 23, 2020g | |||
| Yes | 719 (15.4) | 1.27 (0.51-3.17) | NA |
| No | 1123 (24.0) | 1.0 [Reference] | |
| Work in an essential serviceh | |||
| Yes | 1511 (32.3) | 0.80 (0.29-2.22) | NA |
| No | 323 (6.9) | 1.0 [Reference] | |
| Known contact with individual with confirmed COVID-19 infection | |||
| Yes | 367 (7.9) | 4.26 (2.05-8.88) | 4.33 (1.77-10.58) |
| No | 4295 (91.9) | 1.0 [Reference] | 1.0 [Reference] |
| Travel outside the US since January 1, 2020 | |||
| Yes | 235 (5.0) | 1.41 (0.55-3.62) | NA |
| No | 4436 (94.9) | [Ref] | |
| Travel outside of Virginia since January 1, 2020 | |||
| Yes | 1674 (35.8) | 0.65 (0.37-1.15) | NA |
| No | 2997 (64.1) | 1.0 [Reference] | |
| Self-reported concern about self or household becoming ill with COVID-19 infection | |||
| Not concerned | 1150 (24.6) | 1.13 (0.55-2.35) | NA |
| Somewhat concerned | 2023 (43.3) | 0.84 (0.45-1.54) | |
| Very concerned | 1499 (32.1) | 1.0 [Reference] | |
| Self-reported carefulness about reducing exposures | |||
| Not careful | 43 (0.9) | 0.58 (0.11-2.94) | NA |
| Somewhat careful | 903 (19.3) | 0.83 (0.42-1.61) | |
| Extremely careful | 3726 (79.7) | 1.0 [Reference] | |
Abbreviations: COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; IQR, interquartile range; NA, not applicable; OR, odds ratio.
Univariable and multivariable analyses were performed examining geographic region, age, sex, race, ethnicity, health insurance status, reason for presenting to clinic, presence of high-risk health condition, type of dwelling, median number of adults or children in the household, work status, travel status, and self-reported concerns about COVID-19 infection.
Data are percentages unless otherwise indicated. Data may not always sum to 100% because of rounding, participants who answered “don’t know,” or missing data (which accounted for <1% of data, with the exception of health insurance information, which was missing for 76 participants). Details are available in the eTable in the Supplement.
Only risk factors with statistically significant ORs (P < .05) or ORs less than 0.67 or greater than 1.50 were included in the final multivariable model (n = 4451). NA indicates that the factor was not examined in the multivariable model.
Specific races not queried on survey.
Medicaid includes Family Access to Medical Insurance Security (FAMIS), Virginia’s health insurance program for children.
Multifamily residence, apartment, condominium, long-term care facility or other congregate setting, or other type of residence.
Only participants who indicated that they worked outside the home (≤20 hours per week or >20 hours per week) were queried about work in a health care setting, which included work in a hospital, physician’s office, outpatient clinic, long-term care facility, or assisted-living facility.
Only participants who indicated that they worked outside the home (≤20 hours per week or >20 hours per week) were queried about work in an essential service.