Table 2.

Summary of Results

Year, Authors (in chronological order)	Design	Participants	Methods	Preparation and dosage	Analysis	Effect on Uterus	Effect on other physiology
1941, Burn & Whithell [22]	Laboratory study: in vitro and in vivo	Animal Cat, dog, rabbit and guinea pig uteri (and tissues), spleen, heart and blood vessels	Variety of experiments on both isolated tissue and uteri in situ	Extracts prepared 4 different ways, generally infusion of herb. Author stated dose was 1/100th part of human dose.	unclear	Relaxation effect occasionally followed by contraction	Relaxes intestinal smooth muscle
1941, Whitehouse [23]	Case series	Human 3 postnatal women (Day 5, 7 and 8)	Intrauterine ‘bag’ introduced to uterus to record contractions	Oral dose -	Uterine trace compared (no control)	Relaxation effect, Aid irregular contractions	Very slight fall in systolic pressure
1954, Becket, et al [24]	Laboratory study	Animal Virgin guinea pigs uterine and ilium, Frog rectums	Compared different solutions pharmacological actions in isolated tissue	A variety of preparations, no comparison to human consumption made	unclear	Some constituents were smooth muscle stimulants, others relaxed smooth muscle	Smooth muscle relaxant to ilium and rectum
1970, Bamford, et al [25]	Laboratory study	Animal and human Rat uteri – both pregnant and non-pregnant Human uteri – both pregnant and non-pregnant	Exposed uterine tissue to raspberry leaf and observed for 20 min	Whole leaf used – crushed and infused with saline	unclear	Inhibited contractions of pregnant rats and contracted human uterine tissue in vitro in a coordinated fashion
1999, Parsons, et al [26]	Retrospective cohort study	Human 108 pregnant women – 57 consumed raspberry leaf, 51 were in control group.	Compared clinical outcomes for mother and infant	Some had tea, some had tablets, some had both, one had tincture. Dose ranged from 1 to 8 cups or tablet per day. 13% commencing 8–28 weeks, 59% from 30 to 34 weeks, 28% from 35 to 39 weeks. Duration over a 1–32 week continuous period.	Descriptive statistics, contingency tables and t-tests	Shorten labour, ↑ term birth, ↓Artificial rupture of membranes, caesareans and instrumental birth No adverse effects.
2001, Simpson, et al [16]	RCT	Human 192 pregnant women (primips) 96 in treatment group, 96 in placebo group	Compared clinical outcomes for mother and infant, and side effects for cohort of women taking raspberry leaf in pregnancy with those not.	Tablet from 32 weeks gestation for both raspberry leaf and placebo – only difference was addition of 1.2 g extract of raspberry leaf. Conservative dose (as first study of its kind) of 2.4 g / day – considered half dose.	Descriptive & inferential statistical tests depending on variable measured	↓ second stage length, instrumental birth & ARM
2002, Rojas-Vera, et al [27]	Laboratory study	Animal Guinea pig’s ileum, number not specified	Ileum exposed to raspberry leaf for 5-10 min, washed and re-exposed. Relaxation activity compared 5 min before exposure to after exposure.	Not described	Dose response curve		Smooth muscle relaxant – but dependent on production process of extract of raspberry leaf
2009, Johnson, et al [28]	RCT	Animal Pregnant rats, number not specified	Rats given either raspberry leaf or constituents, then offspring randomly selected checked for onset of puberty	10 mg / kg body weight once breeding confirmed until birth.	Student t test and Mann-Whitney rank sum test and Fisher’s exact test	↑gestational length & accelerated reproduction development in offspring	Transgenerational affect
2010, Zheng, et al [29]	Laboratory study	Animal Non-pregnant and pregnant rat uteri (number not specified)	Non-pregnant uteri tissue was exposed to raspberry leave tea, capsules and extract. Based on the results of this only tea was used on pregnant uteri tissue accumulating every 12 min. Synthetic oxytocin was tested similarly.	Authors stated highest concentrations, unlikely to be obtained through consumption by women. However, authors assessment of assumed dosage for humans was suggesting a cup of tea per day (less than common recommendations) and did not stipulate for how long.	Concentration-effect curves	Had more effect on pregnant uteri then non-pregnant uteri. Excited contractions similar to oxytocin in pregnant tissue. Co-treatment of tea and oxytocin enhanced contractility more than oxytocin alone. Variable levels of response from different animals.
2011, Nordeng, et al [30]	Retrospective cohort study	Human 600 postnatal Norwegian women, 34 took raspberry leaf	Interview using structured questionnaire during postnatal stay in hospital and a review of medical chart.	Not identified	Students t-test Pearson’s’ chi-square Linear regression Logistic regression	↑ caesarean risk
2011, Makaji, et al [31]	RCT	Animal Pregnant rats and their offspring, number not specified	Nulliparous rats received raspberry leaf or variety of derivatives, as soon as breeding confirmed until they birthed. Male and female pups sacrifice from each litter for biopsy of liver	10 mg/kg body weight. Stated this was dose for humans, did not reference the point.	SigmaStat P < .05		Female offspring had alterations in liver enzymes
2016, Cheang, et al [32]	Case study	Human Pregnant woman with IDGDM	Hypoglycaemic effects followed use of tea and confirmed by withdrawal and reintroduction of raspberry leaf	Consumed 2 cups of tea at 32 weeks gestation for 3 days.	Naranjo algorithm		↓ Blood glucose levels in a pregnant woman
2016, Bohata & Dostalak [33]	Retrospective cohort study	Human 315 primiparous women, unclear as to how many had raspberry leaf	Women questioned after vaginal birth on methods used to prevent injury	Not specified	Descriptive statistics compared to control group using no preventative birth injury method		No effect on perineal injury