TABLE 3.
Coping Strategies Adopted by the Study Participants
| Variable | Subgroups | Self-Distraction | Active Coping |
Denial | Substance Use |
Emotional Support | Informational Support | Behavioral Disengage-ent | Venting | Positive Reframing | Planning | Humor | Acceptance | Religion | Self-blame |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overall | − | 4.97 ± 1.61 | 4.81 ± 1.57 | 3.30 ± 1.59 | 1.85 ± 1.35 | 4.02 ± 1.67 | 3.62 ± 1.79 | 3.53 ± 1.54 | 3.79 ± 1.53 | 4.73 ± 1.71 | 4.63 ± 1.67 | 2.85 ± 1.40 | 5.58 ± 1.65 | 6.45 ± 1.68 | 3.11 ± 1.61 |
| Age | ≤ 20 y | 4.96 ± 1.60 | 4.66 ± 1.47 | 3.21 ± 1.60 | 1.78 ± 1.23 | 3.97 ± 1.63 | 3.60 ± 1.75 | 3.49 ± 1.50 | 3.74 ± 1.55 | 4.56 ± 1.62 | 4.43 ± 1.63 | 2.77 ± 1.35 | 5.49 ± 1.67 | 6.48 ± 1.65 | 3.07 ± 1.59 |
| > 20-25 y | 5.02 ± 1.63 | 4.89 ± 1.60 | 3.32 ± 1.60 | 1.95 ± 1.47 | 4.02 ± 1.69 | 3.62 ± 1.84 | 3.58 ± 1.58 | 3.83 ± 1.52 | 4.81 ± 1.77 | 4.69 ± 1.68 | 2.92 ± 1.46 | 5.59 ± 1.63 | 6.38 ± 1.72 | 3.23 ± 1.69 | |
| > 25-30 y | 4.72 ± 1.63 | 5.14 ± 1.76 | 3.52 ± 1.56 | 1.58 ± 1.01 | 3.91 ± 1.59 | 3.60 ± 1.75 | 3.34 ± 1.52 | 3.89 ± 1.50 | 5.12 ± 1.84 | 5.09 ± 1.76 | 2.74 ± 1.24 | 5.86 ± 1.75 | 6.43 ± 1.67 | 2.71 ± 1.23 | |
| ≥ 31 y | 4.53 ± 1.39 | 4.81 ± 1.67 | 3.75 ± 1.39 | 1.63 ± 1.16 | 4.78 ± 1.81 | 4.03 ± 1.77 | 3.22 ± 1.26 | 3.56 ± 1.27 | 4.91 ± 1.38 | 5.38 ± 1.64 | 3.00 ± 1.32 | 5.78 ± 1.66 | 6.94 ± 1.32 | 2.66 ± 1.10 | |
| F value (P-value) | 1.517 (0.208) | 2.843 (0.037) | 1.798 (0.146) | 3.059 (0.031)* | 2.469 (0.061) | 0.577 (0.630) | 1.101 (0.347) | 0.619 (0.603) | 3.186 (0.027)* | 6.248 (< 0.001) | 1.244 (0.297)* | 1.194 (0.311) | 1.821 (0.147)* | 5.046 (0.003)* | |
| Gender | Male | 4.68 ±1.57 | 4.70 ± 1.63 | 3.43 ± 1.58 | 1.95 ± 1.44 | 3.99 ± 1.62 | 3.65 ± 1.82 | 3.59 ± 1.56 | 3.74 ± 1.51 | 4.58 ± 1.75 | 4.79 ± 1.78 | 3.24 ± 1.61 | 5.40 ± 1.75 | 6.13 ± 1.84 | 3.20 ± 1.63 |
| Female | 5.09 ± 1.62 | 4.86 ± 1.53 | 3.25 ± 1.60 | 1.81 ± 1.31 | 4.03 ± 1.69 | 3.61 ± 1.78 | 3.49 ± 1.53 | 3.81 ± 1.53 | 4.80 ± 1.68 | 4.55 ± 1.63 | 2.68 ± 1.27 | 5.65 ± 1.61 | 6.57 ± 1.59 | 3.09 ± 1.61 | |
| T value (P-value) | −3.96 (< 0.001) | −1.558 (0.119) | 1.779 (0.075) | 1.546 (0.123) | −0.299 (0.765) | 0.308 (0.758) | 0.947 (0.344) | −0.780 (0.436) | −1.965 (0.050) | 2.130 (0.033) | 5.648 (< 0.001) | −2.339 (0.019) | −3.810 (< 0.001) | 1.035 (0.301) | |
| Province | Punjab | 4.96 ± 1.61 | 4.80 ± 1.55 | 3.29 ± 1.58 | 1.87 ± 1.35 | 4.02 ± 1.66 | 3.61 ± 1.78 | 3.53 ± 1.53 | 3.79 ± 1.51 | 4.73 ± 1.70 | 4.60 ± 1.66 | 2.83 ± 1.37 | 5.56 ± 1.65 | 6.42 ± 1.68 | 3.12 ± 1.60 |
| Other provinces | 5.04 ± 1.54 | 4.93 ± 1.79 | 3.55 ± 1.75 | 1.61 ± 1.26 | 4.01 ± 1.87 | 3.72 ± 2.01 | 3.33 ± 1.67 | 3.78 ± 1.65 | 4.78 ± 1.87 | 4.97 ± 1.83 | 3.19 ± 1.76 | 5.72 ± 1.76 | 6.67 ± 1.70 | 3.20 ± 1.88 | |
| T value (P-value) | −0.411 (0.681) | −0.636 (0.525) | −1.338 (0.181) | 1.533 (0.126) | 0.022 (0.983 | −0.452 (0.653) | 1.049 (0.295) | 0.042 (0.976) | −0.253 (0.800) | −1.790 (0.074) | −1.680 (0.097) | −0.800 (0.424) | −1.172 (0.241) | −0.372 (0.711) | |
| Education | Medical | 4.77 ± 1.41 | 4.63 ± 1.56 | 2.84 ± 1.05 | 1.70 ± 1.41 | 3.91 ± 1.67 | 3.21 ± 1.85 | 3.07 ± 1.37 | 3.65 ± 1.60 | 4.33 ± 1.58 | 4.44 ± 1.45 | 3.14 ± 1.54 | 5.58 ± 1.68 | 6.09 ± 1.95 | 2.51 ± 1.03 |
| Pharmacy | 4.98 ± 1.61 | 4.82 ± 1.56 | 3.35 ± 1.60 | 1.91 ± 1.37 | 4.01 ± 1.65 | 3.68 ± 1.79 | 3.54 ± 1.55 | 3.81 ± 1.55 | 4.76 ± 1.71 | 4.65 ± 1.70 | 2.78 ± 1.35 | 5.55 ± 1.66 | 6.46 ± 1.68 | 3.10 ± 1.60 | |
| 5.10 ± 1.68 | 4.85 ± 1.60 | 3.10 ± 1.50 | 1.76 ± 1.48 | 3.92 ± 1.43 | 3.66 ± 1.65 | 3.53 ± 1.47 | 3.79 ± 1.48 | 4.76 ± 1.60 | 4.71 ± 1.71 | 2.98 ± 1.53 | 5.35 ± 1.60 | 6.26 ± 1.74 | 3.29 ± 1.78 | ||
| Allied Health Sciences Others | 4.94 ± 1.64 | 4.81 ± 1.58 | 3.28 ± 1.65 | 1.71 ± 1.22 | 4.08 ± 1.77 | 3.51 ± 1.83 | 3.54 ± 1.54 | 3.76 ± 1.45 | 4.71 ± 1.74 | 4.56 ± 1.65 | 2.97 ± 1.49 | 5.68 ± 1.67 | 6.47 ± 1.62 | 3.23 ± 1.69 | |
| F value (P-value) | 0.395 (0.757) | 0.219 (0.883) | 3.363 (0.021)* | 1.735 (0.158) | 0.251 (0.861) | 1.375 (0.249) | 1.279 (0.280) | 0.187 (0.905) | 0.906 (0.437) | 0.411 (0.745) | 2.141 (0.093) | 0.749 (0.523) | 0.922 (0.429) | 5.348 (0.002)* | |
| Family member, relative, or acquaintance got COVID-19 | Yes | 5.04 ± 1.65 | 4.84 ± 1.56 | 3.14 ± 1.49 | 1.99 ± 1.52 | 4.09 ± 1.75 | 3.69 ± 1.87 | 3.56 ± 1.58 | 3.84 ± 1.45 | 4.78 ± 1.76 | 4.63 ± 1.66 | 2.85 ± 1.39 | 5.78 ± 1.58 | 6.41 ± 1.65 | 3.24 ± 1.65 |
| No | 4.95 ± 1.60 | 4.81 ± 1.57 | 3.34 ± 1.62 | 1.81 ± 1.29 | 4.00 ± 1.65 | 3.60 ± 1.77 | 3.51 ± 1.53 | 3.78 ± 1.55 | 4.72 ± 1.69 | 4.62 ± 1.68 | 2.85 ± 1.40 | 5.52 ± 1.67 | 6.45 ± 1.69 | 3.09 ± 1.60 | |
| T value (P-value) | 0.753 (0.452) | 0.258 (0.796) | −1.742 (0.082) | 1.692 (0.091) | 0.820 (0.412) | 0.687 (0.492) | 0.407 (0.684) | 0.511 (0.609) | 0.519 (0.604) | 0.102 (0.918) | 0.060 (0.953) | 2.232 (0.026) | −0.279 (0.780) | 1.329 (0.184) |
*
Welch’s ANOVA was used instead of classic ANOVA as the assumption of homogeneity of variances was violated.