Table 7.

Calreticulin-mediated immunoregulatory functions.

Calreticulin (CRT)
IECs	Biological functions	Hypothesized mechanism	Reference
DCs	↑ Maturation ↑ Phagocytic uptake of apoptotic cells and TLR4-dependent antigen processing ↑ Anti-tumor response	Extracellular cell surface expression acting as a danger associated molecular pattern molecule CRT translocation on the cell surface of cancer cells CRT as tumor-associated antigen promoting DCs activation	(221) (222) (223)
Macrophages	↑ IL-6 and TNF-α release	IκBα degradation and consequent NFκB and MAPK activation	(224)
T cells	↑ Anti-tumor response ↑ tumor infiltration ↑ Th1 polarization ↑ Cytotoxic activity	CRT as tumor-associated antigen promoting T cell activation Upregulation of adhesion molecules in tumor endothelium mediated by CRT expression in cancer cells Effect mediated by CRT expression in cancer cells	(223) (225) (226)