Table 2.
Regression Adjusted Odds Ratios for Risk of ≥3 Emergency Room Visits Associated with Tramadol and Other Opioids Versus No Opioids
| Variable | New user |
Continuing user |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Odds ratios | P | Odds ratios | P | |
| Tramadol | 1.8 | <0.0001 | 1.5 | <0.0001 |
| Other opioids | 2.2 | <0.0001 | 1.9 | <0.0001 |
| Female | 1.0 | 0.41 | 0.9 | 0.17 |
| Age 70–74 | 1.2 | <0.0001 | 1.1 | 0.14 |
| Age 75–79 | 1.6 | <0.0001 | 1.4 | <0.0001 |
| Age 80–84 | 2.2 | <0.0001 | 1.8 | <0.0001 |
| Age ≥85 | 2.7 | <0.0001 | 2.2 | <0.0001 |
| Low income | 1.1 | 0.0006 | 1.1 | 0.06 |
| Medium income | 1.1 | 0.05 | 1.1 | 0.08 |
| Midwest | 1.1 | 0.004 | 1.0 | 0.79 |
| Northeast | 1.1 | 0.001 | 1.1 | 0.05 |
| West | 1.1 | 0.006 | 1.1 | 0.29 |
| PCP per 100,000 | 1.0 | 0.19 | 1.0 | 0.79 |
| Medium coverage plan types | 1.0 | 0.65 | 0.7 | 0.03 |
| Other plan types | 1.0 | 0.77 | 1.0 | 0.64 |
| Antidepressants | 1.4 | <0.0001 | 1.6 | <0.0001 |
| NSAIDs | 0.9 | 0.001 | 0.9 | 0.03 |
| Physical therapy | 1.0 | 0.45 | 1.1 | 0.01 |
| Number CNS medications = 1 | 1.4 | <0.0001 | 1.4 | <0.0001 |
| Number CNS medications = 2 | 1.8 | <0.0001 | 1.7 | <0.0001 |
| Number CNS medications = ≥3 | 2.6 | <0.0001 | 2.5 | <0.0001 |
Reference categories included: no opioid use, age 65–69, high income, South region, high coverage plan types, no antidepressants, no NSAIDs, no physical therapy, and number of CNS medications = 0.
CNS medications, central nervous system medications (including benzodiazepines, non-benzo hypnotics, muscle relaxants, antipsychotics and gabapentinoids); NSAIDs, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; PCP, primary care physician.