Table 1.
Association between environmental, hospital and clinical indicators with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) mortality rate in European Union countries.
| Parameter | β coefficient (95% CI) | P-value |
|---|---|---|
| 1st diagnosed case (date) | −284 (−1002 to 433) | 0.380 |
| Environmental indicators | ||
| Mean yearly temperature (°C) | 0.274 (−0.484 to 1.031) | 0.421 |
| Density (population/km2) | −0.243 (−0.493 to 0.007) | 0.055 |
| Proportion of urban population (%) | −1.190 (−3.970 to 1.590) | 0.345 |
| People per room in occupied housing unit (number) | −0.384 (−1.595 to 0.826) | 0.477 |
| Gross domestic product (US$ per capita) | 0.722 (−0.003 to 1.447) | 0.051 |
| Hospital indicators | ||
| Total healthcare expenditure (US$ per capita) | −0.002 (−1.597 to 1.594) | 0.998 |
| Public sector healthcare expenditure (% of total health expenditure) | −0.737 (−1.737 to 0.264) | 0.125 |
| General hospitals (per 100,000) | −0.513 (−0.918 to −0.107) | 0.020 |
| Hospital beds (per 100,000) | 0.037 (−0.786 to 0.860) | 0.918 |
| Acute care beds (per 100,000) | 1.039 (−0.194 to 2.273) | 0.056 |
| Acute care bed occupancy (%) | 3.639 (1.743–5.534) | 0.003 |
| Physicians (per 100,000) | −1.494 (−2.792 to −0.196) | 0.039 |
| Nurses (per 100,000) | −1.290 (−2.242 to −0.339) | 0.015 |
| Clinical indicators | ||
| Estimated life expectancy at birth (years) | −9.036 (−19.270 to 1.198) | 0.075 |
| Population aged >65 years (%) | 3.019 (0.448–5.590) | 0.027 |
| Age-standardised current tobacco smoking in people >15 years (%) | −0.943 (−2.817 to 0.930) | 0.273 |
| Age-standardised overweight in people >18 years (%) | 6.886 (0.347–13.426) | 0.042 |
| Incidence of cancer (per 100,000) | 0.577 (0.117–1.037) | 0.041 |
| People self-assessing health as good (%) | 2.170 (0.797–3.543) | 0.007 |
CI, confidence interval. Statistically significant associations are given in bold.