Table 1. Studies included in the systematic review.
| Study | Participant information | Stimuli used in encoding sessions | Retention interval | Stress protocol | Memory test type (time after stress onset) | Memory test results | ||||||||
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| Type of stressor (details) | Time of retrieval session | Change in cortisol levels (peak in min after onset) | CG × SG | RD × NR | ||||||||||
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| M | F | Age range (mean) | M | F | M | F | M | F | ||||||
| Boehringer12 | 51 | - | 19-31 (24.6) | 30 nouns | 135 min | TSST | 4-6 p.m. | - (25) | - (-) | Free recall (30 min) | SG impaired* | - | - | - |
| Goldfarb13 (1) | 30 | 30 | 18-35 (23.0) | Multicued search task (“T” and “L”) | 24 h | CPT (0-2 °C for 3 min) | Noon-6 p.m. | - (15) | - (15) | Search, stimulus-response (15 min) | Same | Same | - | - |
| Goldfarb13 (2) | 30 | 30 | 18-35 (23.0) | Multicued search task (“T” and “L”) | 24 h | CPT (0-2 °C for 3 min) | Noon-6 p.m. | - (15) | - (15) | Search, context memory (15 min) | SG impaired | SG impaired | - | - |
| Hidalgo16 (1) | 27 | 25 | 56-76 (-) | 30 color pictures | 24 h | TSST | 4-6 p.m. | Low (25) | No (-) | Free recall (25 min) | Same | Same | - | - |
| Hidalgo16 (2) | 27 | 25 | 56-76 (-) | 30 color pictures | 24 h | TSST | 4-6 p.m. | Yes (25) | No (-) | Recognition (25 min) | Same | Same | - | - |
| Hidalgo16 (3) | 26 | 24 | 18-27 (-) | 30 color pictures | 24 h | TSST | 4-6 p.m. | High (25) | High (25) | Free recall (25 min) | SG impaired | Same | - | - |
| Hidalgo16 (4) | 26 | 24 | 18-27 (-) | 30 color pictures | 24 h | TSST | 4-6 p.m. | Yes (25) | Yes (25) | Recognition (25 min) | Same | Same | - | - |
| Hupbach10 | 37 | 38 | 18-35 (-) | Neutral text with 30 ideas | 24 h | CPT (0-2 °C for 2 min) | 11 a.m.-4:30 p.m. | Yes (20) | No (-) | Free recall (immediate) | SG enhanced | Same | - | - |
| Larrosa28 | 6 | 12 | 18-40 (-) | 5 pairs of nonsense syllables | 3 days | CPT (0-4 °C for 1 min) | 11 a.m.-5 p.m. | Yes (20) | Yes (20) | Cued recall (20 min) | SG impaired | SG impaired | - | - |
| Pulopulos17 (1) | 38 | 38 | 56-76 (-) | 30 color pictures | 24 h | TSST | 4-6 p.m. | High (25) | Low (25) | Free recall (25 min) | Same | Same | - | - |
| Pulopulos17 (2) | 38 | 38 | 56-76 (-) | 15 neutral words | 24 h | TSST | 4-6 p.m. | High (25) | Low (25) | Free recall (40 min) | Same | Same | - | - |
| Pulopulos17 (3) | 38 | 38 | 56-76 (-) | 2 stories (42 ideas) | 24 h | TSST | 4-6 p.m. | High (25) | Low (25) | Free recall (45 min) | Same | Same | - | - |
| Schonfeld14 (1) | 36 | 36 | - (23.2) | 50 nouns and 50 pictures | 24 h | TSST (core items) | 1-6:30 p.m. | High (25) | Low (25) | Free recall (immediate) | Same | Same | RD/LD impaired† | RD/LD impaired† |
| Schonfeld14 (2) | 36 | 36 | - (23.2) | 50 nouns and 50 pictures | 24 h | TSST (core items) | 1-6:30 p.m. | High (25) | Low (25) | Free recall (25 min) | Same | Same | RD/LD impaired† | RD/LD impaired† |
| Schoofs & Wolf18 | - | 36 | - (24.7) | 30 nouns | 24 h | TSST | 10-11 a.m. | - (-) | Low (10) | Free recall (25 min) | - | Same | - | Same |
| Schwabe15 (1) | 20 | 20 | - (23.6) | 2 lists of 60 nouns | 24 h | SECPT (0-2 °C for 3 min) | 1-6 p.m. | No (-) | No (-) | Recognition (immediate) | Same | Same | - | - |
| Schwabe15 (2) | 20 | 20 | - (23.6) | 2 lists of 60 nouns | 24 h | SECPT (0-2 °C for 3 min) | 1-6 p.m. | Yes (25) | Yes (25) | Recognition (25 min) | SG impaired‡ | SG impaired‡ | - | - |
| Schwabe15 (3) | 20 | 20 | - (23.6) | 2 lists of 60 nouns | 24 h | SECPT (0-2 °C for 3 min) | 1-6 p.m. | No (-) | No (-) | Recognition (90 min) | SG impaired | SG impaired | - | - |
| Smeets23 (1) | 17 | 21 | 18-25(19.9) | 30 words | 24 h | SECPT (0-2 °C for 3 min) | 9-11 a.m. | Yes (20) | Yes (20) | Free recall (15-25 min) | SG impaired | SG impaired | - | - |
| Smeets23 (2) | 17 | 21 | 18-25 (19.9) | 30 words | 24 h | SECPT (0-2 °C for 3 min) | 2-6 p.m. | Yes (20) | Yes (20) | Free recall (15-25 min) | SG impaired | SG impaired | - | - |
| Smith29 (1) | 48 | 72 | - (20.1) | 30 nouns and 30 images | 24 h | TSST-G | 3:30-5:30 p.m. | Yes (-) | Yes (-) | Free recall (immediate) | Same | Same | - | - |
| Smith29 (2) | 48 | 72 | - (20.1) | 30 nouns and 30 images | 24 h | TSST-G | 3:30-5:30 p.m. | Yes (-) | Yes (-) | Free recall (20 min) | SG impaired | SG impaired | RP same as CG | RP same as CG |
| Szollosi30 | 28 | 35 | 19-27 (-) | 40 word pairs | 7 days | TSST | 4-8 p.m. | Yes (-) | Yes (-) | Cued recall (30 min) | Same | Same | RD impaired | RD impaired |
| Zoladz11 (1) | 38 | 55 | - (19.45) | 42 words | 5 min | CPT (0-2 °C for 3 min) | Noon-6 p.m. | Low (22) | Low (22) | Free recall (immediate) | Same | Same | RD enhanced | Same |
| Zoladz11 (2) | 38 | 55 | - (19.45) | 42 words | 24 h | CPT (0-2 °C for 3 min) | Noon-6 p.m. | Low (22) | Low (22) | Recognition (22 min) | Same | Same | NR impaired | Same |
Numbers in parentheses next to author name represent an experimental condition or group in the corresponding study.
- = not available; CG = control group; CPT = Cold-Pressor Test; F = female; LD = participants with low diastolic blood pressure; M = male; NR = cortisol non-responders; RD = cortisol responders; RP = retrieval practice condition; SECPT = Socially Evaluated Cold-Pressor Test; SG = stress group; TSST = Trier Social Stress Test; TSST-G = TSST group version.
* After controlling for changes in energetic and tense arousal, the association between increase in salivary cortisol and memory retrieval was no longer significant.
† Only for negative items.
‡ Marginally significant.