Table 1.
Overview of studies included into meta-analysis on the aftereffect of acute exercise on set shifting performance in healthy adults.
| Study | N/Age | Study design | Exercise treatment | Control group treatment | Test/Timing of administration | Type of variable to measure cognitive flexibility | PEDro summary score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aguirre-Loaiza et al. (2019) | Gender not reported 21.15 ± 2.21 years |
RCT | • Modality: cycling • Description: warm up 60–65% HRmax between 60 and 90 RPM, six sections of 4 min with six peaks of 85% HRmax between 90 and 100 RPM, and active recovery at 75% HRmax, cooldown 60% HRmax between 50 and 70 RPM • Type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: 75–85% of HRmax ≙ “vigorous” • Duration: 45 min. or 35 min. |
• Modality: passive • Description: resting • Duration: 45 min. or 30 min. |
TMT Timing of administration not reported |
RT | 7/9 |
| Alves et al. (2012) | 42 (f) 52 ± 7.3 years |
Crossover | • Modality: walking • Description: no further information reported • Type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: 50–60% of HR reserve ≙“moderate” • Duration: 30 min. |
• Modality: active • Description: listening to instructions, then low-intensity active stretching exercise • Duration: 30 min. |
TMT Timing of administration not reported |
RT Accuracy |
5/9 |
| Bae and Masaki (2019) | 15 (f)/14 (m) 21.4 ± 1.2 years |
Crossover | • Modality: cycling • Description: 30 min of self-paced motor-driven treadmill exercise • Type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: 70% of HRmax ≙ “moderate” • Duration: 30 min. |
• Modality: cognitive engagement • Description: reading • Duration: 30 min. |
Task switching test Timing of administration not reported |
RT (switch cost) Accuracy |
7/9 |
| Barenberg et al. (2015) (a) |
24 (f)/25 (m) 24.45 ± 2.72 years |
Crossover | • Modality: cycling • Description: 2-min warm-up at 25 W, workload was increased by 25 W every 10 s until exhaustion or pace falling below 60 rpm. 4-min recovery phase at 20 W • Type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: 70 (rpm) ≙ “vigorous” • Duration: 45 min. |
• Modality: cognitive engagement • Description: sitting in a chair and listening to music • Duration: 10 min. |
Switch trial test Timing of administration not reported |
RT (switch cost) | 6/9 |
| Barenberg et al. (2015) (b) |
27 (f)/18 (m) 23.02 ± 1.71 years | Crossover | • Modality: cycling • Description: 2-min warm-up at 25 W, workload was increased by 25 W every 10 s until exhaustion or pace falling below 60 rpm. 4-min recovery phase at 20 W • Type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: 70 (rpm) ≙ “vigorous” • Duration: 45 min. |
• Modality: cognitive engagement • Description: sitting in a chair and listening to music • Duration: 10 min. |
Switch trial test Timing of administration not reported |
RT (switch cost) | 6/9 |
| Basso et al. (2015) | 51 (f)/34 (m) 20.78 ± 0.46 years |
RCT | • Modality: cycling • Description: 5 min. warm up, 50 min of vigorous-intensity aerobic exercise, 5 min. cool-down • Type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: 85% of HRmax ≙ “vigorous” • Duration: 60 min. |
• Modality: cognitive engagement • Description: watching TV • Duration: 60 min. |
TMT 30, 60 min. after exercise cessation |
RT | 7/9 |
| Brush et al. (2016) | 14 (f)/14 (m) 20.5 ± 2.1 years |
Crossover | • Modality: bench press, shoulder press, dumbbell rows, alternating bicep curls, triceps pushdowns, leg extensions, and leg curls • Description: three sets of 10 repetitions, 120 s rest between sets and exercises • Type of exercise: resistance • Intensity: 40%,70% and 100% of 10-RM ≙ “light,” “moderate” and “vigorous” • Duration: 45 min. |
• Modality: cognitive engagement • Description: watching video • Duration: 45 min. |
Dimension-Switching Task, Plus–Minus Task 15 min. after exercise cessation |
RT accuracy |
5/9 |
| Chang and Etnier (2009) | 27 (f)/14 (m) 49.1 ± 8.73 years |
RCT | • Modality: right-arm curl, left-arm curl, dumbbell rowing-right hand, dumbbell rowing-left hand, dumb- bell lateral raise, and bench press • Description: two sets of 10 repetitions for six exercises • Type of exercise: resistance • Intensity: 75% of their theoretical 1-RM ≙ “moderate” • Duration: 45 min. |
• Modality: cognitive engagement • Description: reading • Duration: 45 min. |
TMT Timing of administration not reported | RT | 7/9 |
| Chen et al. (2018) | 26 (f)/19 (m) 57.67 ± 5.06y | Crossover | • Modality: cycling • Description: 5 min. warm up, 10 min., 20 min. or 45 min. exercise, 5 min. cooldown • Type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: 65–70% of HR reserve ≙ “vigorous” • Duration: 20 min., 30 min. or 55 min. |
• Modality: cognitive engagement • Description: reading • Duration: 30 min. |
Task Switching Test Timing of administration not reported |
RT (switch cost) Accuracy |
7/9 |
| Coles and Tomporowski (2008) | 18 (f+m) 22.2 ± 1.6 years | Crossover | • Modality: cycling • Description: 5-min warm-up, 30-min period, 5-min cool-down period • Type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: 30% → 60% → 30% of VO2max ≙ vigorous • Duration: 40 min. |
• Modality: cognitive engagement • Description: sitting • Duration: 40 min. |
Visual switch task 5 min. after exercise cessation |
RT (switch cost) | 5/9 |
| • Modality: cognitive engagement • Description: watching TV • Duration: 40 min. |
|||||||
| Córdova et al. (2009) | 48 (f) 63.44 ± 1.08 years |
RCT | • Modality: cycling • Description: 5 min warm-up, 20 min exercise • Type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: 60%,90% or 110% of the AT ≙ “light,” “moderate” and “vigorous” • Duration: 25 min. |
• Modality: passive • Description: sitting • Duration: 25 min. |
TMT •8 min. after exercise cessation | RT | 7/9 |
| Crush and Loprinzi (2017) | 239 (f)/113 (m) 21.05 ± 0.21 years |
Crossover | • Modality: running • Description: exercising on a treadmill • Type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: 40% and 59% of HRreserve≙ “moderate” • Duration: 10 min. |
• Modality: passive• Description: no control treatment, baseline testing• Duration: / | TMT 5 min, 15 min., or 30 min. after exercise cessation |
RT | 6/9 |
| Douris et al. (2018) | 24 (f)/14 (m) 23.7 ± 1.8 years |
RCT | • Modality: cycling • Description: cycling on a Monarch 818E Lower Body Ergometer • Type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: 60 to 70% of HRmax ≙ “vigorous” • Duration: 30 min. |
• Modality: passive • Description: sitting • Duration: 30 min. |
TMT Timing of administration not reported |
RT | 7/9 |
| Frith et al. (2017) | 12 (f)/10(m) 21.9 ± 2.4 years |
RCT | • Modality: jogging • Description: jog on treadmill, 5 min at self-selected intensity, 5 min at a self-selected faster pace, 5 min at a self-selected hard pace • Type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: RPE of 11–12 → RPE of 13–15 → RPE of 16–20 ≙ “vigorous” • Duration: 15 min. |
• Modality: passive • Description: sitting • Duration: 20 min. |
TMT Timing of administration not reported |
RT (switch cost) | 7/9 |
| Hwang et al. (2016) | 32 (f)/26 (m) 23.59 ± 1.06 years |
RCT | • Modality: running • Description: running on a treadmill, 2-min warm up, 5-min increased speed to reach target HR, 10-min running at target HR, 3-min cool down. • Type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: 85–90% VO2max ≙ “vigorous” • Duration: 20 min. |
• Modality: passive • Description: sitting • Duration: 20 min. |
TMT 10 min. after exercise cessation |
RT | 7/9 |
| Jaffery et al. (2018) | 64 (f)/24 (m) 21.5 ± 0.5 y |
RCT | • Modality: walking • Description: walk at a self-selected brisk walking pace • Type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: “light” • Duration: 5 min. |
• Modality: passive • Description: sitting • Duration: 10 min. or 5 min. |
TMT 5 min. after exercise cessation |
RT | 7/9 |
| Kujach et al. (2020) | 36 (m) 21.35 ± 0.5 years |
RCT | • Modality: cycling • Description: 5-min warm up at 1.5 Watts × kg−1 of BM. interval exercise, six sets of 30 s of “all out” sprint cycling exercise. Flywheel resistance equaled 0.075 kG × kg−1 of BM (i.e., Wingate test based) which corresponded to 7.5% of each individual's BM, interval rest periods between the 30-s bouts were 4 min and 30 s • type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: >100% VO2max ≙ “vigorous” • Duration: till exhaustion |
• Modality: passive • Description: resting • Duration: not reported |
TMT 20 min. after exercise cessation |
RT | 7/9 |
| Murray and Russoniello (2012) | 60 (f)/60 (m) 20.86 ± 0.27 years |
RCT | • Modality: cycling • Description: pedal a stationary bike • type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: mean HR intensity of 75.46 % (SD = 8.26) ≙ “vigorous” • Duration: 30 min. |
• Modality: cognitive engagement • Description: monitor and motivate other participants • Duration: 30 min. |
TMT Timing of administration not reported |
RT | 6/9 |
| Naderi et al. (2018) | 24 (f)/24 (m) 63.58 ± 0.34 years |
RCT | • Modality: chest presses, shoulder presses, high pull-downs, rowing, alternating biceps curls, leg extensions, leg curls, and leg presses • Description: 5–10 min. warm-up with light aerobic activity and general stretching exercise, three sets of 10 repetitions. Rest intervals 30 s and 90 s. • Type of exercise: resistance • Intensity: 70% of 10-RM ≙ “light” • Duration: 45 min. |
• Modality: cognitive engagement• Description: watching video • Duration: 45 min. |
•More-odd task 15 min. after exercise cessation |
RT (switch cost) Accuracy |
5/9 |
| Oberste et al. (2016) | 37 (f)/84 (m) 23.92 ± 0.09 years | RCT | • Modality: cycling • Description: 5 min. warm up while cycling at 25 W, constantly 70 rpm. Then increasing W until participants reached targeted HR range • Type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: 45–50%, 65–70%, or 85–90% of HRmax. ≙ “light,” “moderate,” and “vigorous” • Duration: 35 min. |
• Modality: active • Description: low level self-massage session using a foam roll guided by an experienced instructor • Duration: 35 min. |
TMT 10 min. after exercise cessation |
RT | 9/9 |
| Schwarck et al. (2019) | 39 (m) 23.33 ± 3.23 years | RCT | • Modality: cycling • Description: 30 min. treadmill cycling, 5 min. cooldown or 5 min warmup, five 2 min intervals, 5 min. cooldown • Type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: 40–59% VO2max and 90% VO2max ≙ “moderate” and “vigorous” • Duration: 35 min. |
• Modality: passive • Description: sitting • Duration: 10 min. |
TMT 10 min. after exercise cessation |
RT | 7/9 |
| Slusher et al. (2018) | 13 (m) 23.62 ± 1.06 years |
RCT | • Modality: cycling • Description: 10 min. warm-up at 50W on a cycle ergometer. Immediately following: low-volume, supramaximal HIIE. The HIIE protocol: 10 maximal bouts of all out pedaling for 20- s against 5.5% of the subject's body weight, separated by a 10-s active rest period • Type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: 170% of an individual's VO2peak ≙ “vigorous” • Duration: 15 min. |
• Modality: active • Description: low level self-massage session using a foam roll guided by an experienced instructor • Duration: 35 min. |
WCST Immediately after exercise cessation |
RT Accuracy |
4/9 |
| Wu et al. (2019) | 17 (f)/13 (m) 21.17 ± 1.32 years |
Crossover | • Modality: cycling • Description: 5 min. warm up, 20 min exercise, 5 min. cooldown • Type of exercise: aerobic • Intensity: 60–70% of HR reserve ≙ “moderate” • Duration: 30 min. |
• Modality: cognitive engagement • Description: reading • Duration: 30 min. |
Task switching test Timing of administration not reported |
RT (switch cost) | 7/9 |
| • Modality: leg press, leg extension, chest press, chest fly, lateral pulldown, right bicep curl, and left bicep curl • Description: 5 min. warm-up, two sets of 8–12 repetitions for approximately 20 min • Type of exercise: resistance • Intensity: 70% of their 10 RM. ≙ “light,” • Duration: 25 min. |
f, female; m, male; RCT, randomized controlled trial; HRmax, maximum heart rate; W, Watt performance; VO2peak; peak oxygen uptake; RPM, revolutions per minute, TMT, Trail Making Test; RT, reaction time; RM, repetition maximum; AT, anaerobic threshold; BM, baseline maximum.