Table 2.
Meta-regression analysis of sources of heterogeneity and factors associated with the variation of prevalence of active tobacco smoking in people living with HIV ongoing antiretroviral therapy
| No. studies | No. participants | Univariable model | Multivariable model | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n = 329 | n = 462 104 | Prevalence difference (95% confidence intervals) | P value | R2, % | Adjusted prevalence difference (95% confidence intervals) | P value | LR test | |||
| Country level of income | < 0.0001 | 39.4 | 0.023 | |||||||
| Low | 30 | 11 329 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| Lower-Middle | 21 | 9858 | 9.1 (− 1.4 to 20.7) | 0.091 | − 0.7 (− 4.3 to 3.0) | 0.916 | ||||
| Upper-Middle | 39 | 8252 | 25.9 (15.4 to 37.2) | < 0.0001 | 10.0 (6.3 to 13.9) | 0.092 | ||||
| High | 216 | 339 022 | 51.2 (41.1 to 62.0) | < 0.0001 | 13.8 (9.2 to 18.6) | 0.047 | ||||
| Multi-region | 23 | 93 643 | 26.4 (14.7 to 39.4) | < 0.0001 | − 2.0 (− 6.3 to 2.5) | 0.776 | ||||
| UNAIDS | < 0.0001 | 45.3 | < 0.0001 | |||||||
| West and Central Europe and North America | 203 | 293 547 | Ref | Ref | ||||||
| West and Central Africa | 12 | 4 868 | − 40.9 (− 46.5 to − 34.6) | < 0.0001 | − 32.0 (− 35.1 to − 28.8) | < 0.0001 | ||||
| Eastern and Southern Africa | 34 | 12,676 | − 33.3 (− 37.4 to − 29.0) | < 0.0001 | − 26.0 (− 28.9 to − 22.9) | < 0.0001 | ||||
| Eastern Europe and Central Asia | 2 | 264 | − 2.2 (− 23.3 to 24.6) | 0.865 | 5.5 (− 2.6 to 14.4) | 0.650 | ||||
| Latin America and the Caribbean | 24 | 16 385 | − 16.0 (− 21.9 to − 9.6) | < 0.0001 | − 13.9 (− 17.1 to − 10.6) | 0.020 | ||||
| Asia and the Pacific | 27 | 16 352 | − 12.4 (− 18.2 to − 6.0) | 0.0002 | − 4.9 (− 7.6 to − 2.1) | 0.388 | ||||
| Middle East and North Africa | 3 | 320 | − 12.0 (− 28.1 to 7.6) | 0.212 | − 10.9 (− 17.1 to − 4.3) | 0.401 | ||||
| Multi− region | 24 | 117 692 | − 11.5 (− 17.7 to − 4.9) | 0.0009 | − 4.0 (− 7.1 to − 0.9) | 0.622 | ||||
| Percentage of males | 13.4 | |||||||||
| Increase of 10% | 301* | 446 434 | 3.3 (2.2 to 4.3) | < 0.0001 | ||||||
| Duration since diagnostic infection | 5.7 | |||||||||
| By increase of 5 years | 119* | 68 194 | 6.4 (3.0 to 10.0) | 0.0004 | ||||||
| Duration of antiretroviral therapy | 0.8 | |||||||||
| By increase of 5 years | 98* | 117 811 | 4.1 (0.5 to 7.9) | 0.0285 | ||||||
| Mean age | 4.0 | |||||||||
| By increase of 10 years | 290* | 380 280 | 6.0 (2.2 to 10.1) | 0.0002 | ||||||
| Response rate | 0.1 | |||||||||
| < 80% or not described | 172 | 268 253 | Ref | |||||||
| ≥ 80% | 157 | 193 851 | − 1.2 (− 6.1 to 3.8) | 0.628 | ||||||
| Sampling method | 0.9 | |||||||||
| Non probabilistic | 277 | 436 880 | Ref | |||||||
| Probabilistic | 52 | 25 224 | − 5.5 (− 11.8 to 1.1) | 0.102 | ||||||
| Timing of data collection and analysis | 0.238 | 1.3 | ||||||||
| Prospectively | 261 | 317 315 | Ref | |||||||
| Retrospectively | 50 | 129 628 | 4.6 (− 2.4 to 12.2) | 0.205 | ||||||
| Both | 1 | 957 | 42.4 (− 8.7 to 122.2) | 0.119 | ||||||
| Unclear | 17 | 14 204 | 4.0 (− 7.1 to 16.5) | 0.493 | ||||||
| Precision | 0.8 | |||||||||
| Low | 197 | 30 651 | Ref | |||||||
| Acceptable | 132 | 431 453 | − 4.1 (− 8.9 to 0.8) | 0.102 | ||||||
ART Antiretroviral therapy, UNAIDS Joint United Program on HIV, NA Not applicable, LR Likelihood ratio
*Missing data were imputed