Table 2.

Evaluation matrix for ecosystem services, disservices, and management costs in urban forests, adapted from Vaz et al. (2017). The potential governance responses are intended to maximize services while minimizing disservices, and list specific stakeholders involved. Scenarios align with flower diagrams in Fig. 4

Scenario type	Example	Local context	Ecosystem services	Ecosystem disservices	Management costs	Potential governance response
Positive synergy	Well-maintained roadside green stormwater infrastructure sites with medium-stature trees	Temperate city with combined sewer system, commercial district, neighborhood at moderate risk of gentrification	Stormwater runoff reduction Aesthetic appeal Walkable streetscapes, promoting pedestrian traffic in commercial area Carbon sequestration Increased real estate values and rental prices	Minimal disservices, although installation and ongoing maintenance results in a modest amount of greenhouse gas emissions, and some neighbors may perceive trees as promoting gentrification	High installation costs for highly engineered sites Seasonal maintenance	Municipal public works dept.: Sustain effective stormwater functions through seasonal maintenance, strategize techniques to lower greenhouse gas emissions from installation and maintenance, foster neighborhood dialogue to understand and counteract gentrification concerns
Tradeoff	Large non-native invasive residential yard trees	City with a Mediterranean climate, neighborhood near natural area	Shade for thermal comfort, building energy-use reduction, and emissions avoidance Carbon sequestration from large-stature tree Aesthetic appeal	Invading nearby natural areas, reducing wildlife habitat Increased wildfire risk Carbon emissions from installation Infrastructure conflicts with overhead wires Nuisance complaints from shedding bark or leaf litter	Routine risk management inspections to address infrastructure conflicts Potential emergency costs due to storms or wildfires	Municipal policy-makers, planners: Develop policies, guidelines, and/or outreach to reduce disservices related to invasive trees and wildfire risk, coordinate with municipal foresters about best practices Residents: Carefully weigh when removal and replacement of invasive trees becomes appropriate
Negative synergy	Recently planted street trees that have died	Subtropical city, working class neighborhood facing gentrification pressure	Minimal services, as trees died soon after planting, although during their brief life the trees may have provided some aesthetic appeal	Unkempt standing dead trees signify lack of care Residents concerned about green gentrification Residents resist future planting programs Disposal of tree waste into landfills Carbon emissions from installation	Sunk planting costs for trees that failed to survive	Municipal park dept.: Provide permits for tree removal if needed, develop program to re-use tree waste Residents, contract arborists: Remove dead trees promptly Planting program: For future plantings, develop close collaborations with community organizations to address gentrification concerns, and hire local youth for maintenance and job training