Table 1.

Edible plants present in Indian biodiversity being used as food or nutraceutical showing anti-retroviral activity

S. No.	Plant species /family	Common name	Major chemical constituents	Used as	Virus type	Extract type/active compound	Mechanism of action
1	Abutilon indicum L. (Sweet)/Malvaceae	Indian lantern flower, Indian mallow, Kanghi	β-Sitosterol, asparagine [86]	Food [87]	Anti-mouse coronaviral activity (a surrogate of SARS-CoV) [66]	Aerial parts methanol extract [66]	Mechanism not clear
2	Acalypha indica L./Euphorbiaceae	Indian-nettle, Copperleaf, Kuppi, Kuppikhokhali	Acalyphin, kaempferol [88]	Food [89]	Vesicular stomatitis virus [90]	Ethanolic leaf extract [90]	Inhibitory activity by protein interaction [90]
3	Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa/Rutaceae	Bael	Marmin, marmesin [62]	Food [91]	Human coxsackieviruses B1-B6 infection [62]	Methanolic and aqueous methanolic (1:1) extract of Leaves, stem, stem bark, root, root bark/Marmelide [62]	Inhibits viral replication [62]
4	Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb./Rosaceae	Hairy agrimony	Catechin, hyperoside [50]	Food [92]	Influenza virus [50]	Whole plant ethanol extract/Flavonoids (catechin, hyperoside, quercetin, and rutin) [50]	Reacts with viral membrane, inhibits viral replication and viral mRNA synthesis [50]
5	Allium sativum L./Amaryllidaceae	Garlic	Allicin, Alliin [43]	Nutraceutical [93], Spice [94]	SARS-CoV [37] Parainfluenza-3, Human rhinovirus, Vesicular stomatitis virus [43]	Lectin ( ASA, ASA1) [37], fresh garlic clove extract/Ajoene, allicin, allyl methyl thiosulfinate, methyl allyl thiosulfinate [43]	Interfere with the glycans on the spike protein during virus entry and virus release [37], Inhibits viral adsorption or penetration [43]
6	Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f./Asphodelaceae	Aloe vera, Gwarpatha, Ghritkumari	Polysaccharides, aloin [95]	Food [95]	Influenza A virus [96]	Aqueous leaf extract/polysaccharide [96]	Inhibits viral attachment to host cell [96]
7	Areca nut L./Arecaceae	Supari, Betelnut	Arecoline, guvacine [97]	Mouth fresher [98]	Human immunodeficiency virus type 1[2]	Aqueous and methanolic seed extract/arecatannins [2]	Inhibition of HIV type-1 protease enzyme [2]
8	Artemisia annua L. /Asteraceae	Sweet sagewort	Artemisinin [99]	Spice [100]	SARS-CoV [67]	Whole plant ethanol extract [66]	Mechanism not clear
9	Azadirachta indica A. Juss./Meliaceae	Neem, Indian-lilac	Azadirachtin [101]	Nutraceutical [101]	Group B Coxsackieviruses [72]	Methanolic leaf extract/Flavonoids, triterpenes [72]	Inhibits viral replication [72]
10	Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze/Theaceae	Black tea, Common tea, Green tea	Epigallocatechin gallate [102]	Beverage [103]	Bovine coronavirus [75], Influenza virus [104], HIV-1 [102]	Epigallocatechin gallate [75], Aqueous leaf extract/Catechins [104], Hot aqueous leaf extract/Epigallocatechin gallate [102]	Inhibitory effect by interacting with spike glycoprotein [75], Inhibits various virus lifecycle steps [104, 102]
11	Cassia occidentalis L./Fabaceae	Coffee senna	Rhein, emodin [105]	Food [106]	Human immunodeficiency virus [40]	Methanolic leaf extract [40]	Inhibiting HIV reverse transcriptase activity [40]
12	Cicer arietinum L./Fabaceae	Chick Pea, Bengal gram	Dietary minerals [107]	Food [107]	Parainfluensa-3 virus [48]	Methanolic extract of seed, fruit skin and aerial part/Phenolic compounds [48]	Inhibits parainfluensa-3 virus [48]
13	Commelina communis L./Commelinaceae	Asiatic dayflower	Homonojirimycin [108]	Food [109]	Influenza virus [108]	Ethanolic leaf and stem extract/Homonojirimycin [108]	Prevents inflammatory responses and strengthen host resistance against viral infection by activating secretion of IFN- and IL-10 [108]
14	Curcuma longa L. /Zingiberaceae	Haldi, turmeric	Curcumin [110]	Spice [111]	Respiratory syncytial virus [110]	Curcumin [110]	Inhibit viral replication [110]
15	Cynara Scolymus L./Asteraceae	Globe artichoke, Sharifa	Cynaropicrin [39]	Food, nutraceutical [112]	Hepatitis C virus [39]	Cynaropicrin [39]	Inhibits viral cell-entry [39]
16	Embelia ribes Burm. f./Primulaceae	Vidanga	Embelin [59]	Nutraceutical [113]	Influenza A virus (H1N1) [59]	Ethyl acetate fruit extract/Embelin [59]	Inhibits viral replication [59]
17	Eugenia jambolana Lam./Myrtaceae	Jamun, Jambul	Delphinidin, petunidin [114]	Food [114]	Influenza virus (H5N1) [115]	Methanolic, hydromethanolic and aqueous leaf extract; aqueous bark extract [115]	Interferes with viral envelop that are necessary for adsorption or entry into host cells [115]
18	Gingko biloba L./Ginkgoaceae	Maidenhair-tree, Ginkgo	Ginkgetin [46]	Nutraceutical [116]	Influenza virus [46]	Ginkgetin [46]	Inhibition of viral sialidase activity [46]
19	Glycyrrhiza glabra L./Fabaceae	Liquorice, Mulethi	Glycyrrhizin [42]	Nutraceutical [117], sweetener[118]	SARS- CoV [42]	Glycyrrhizin [42]	Inhibits viral adsorption, penetration and replication [42]
20	Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Schult./Apocynaceae	Gymnema, miracle-fruit, Gudmar	Gymnemic acid [119]	Nutraceutical [119]	Anti-mouse coronaviral activity (a surrogate of SARS-CoV) [66]	Aerial parts methanol extract [66]	Mechanism not clear
21	Hibiscus sabdariffa L./Malvaceae	Roselle, Indian-sorrel, Lal ambari	Hibiscus acid, citric acid [120]	Food [120]	H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus [121]	Aqueous tea extract [121]	Inhibited viral replication and viral antigens and genes expression [121]
22	Leucas aspera (Wild.) Link/Lamiaceae	Tumba, Chota halkusa	Asperphenamate, sitosterol [122]	Food [122]	Anti-mouse coronaviral activity (a surrogate of SARS-CoV) [66]	Aerial parts methanol extract [66]	Mechanism not clear
23	Mangifera indica L./Anacardiaceae	Mango	Mangiferin [123]	Food [124]	H2N2 influenza A virus, coxsackie B3 virus [52]	Hydroalcoholic stem bark extract/Penta-O-galloyl-glucose, tetra-O-galloyl-glucose [52]	Inhibits influenza neuraminidase and coxsackie virus 3C protease [52]
24	Momordica charantia L./Cucurbitaceae	Karela, Bitter gourd, Bitter melon	Momordicine, Charantin [125]	Food [125]	Human immunodeficiency virus [126]	MAP30 protein [126]	Inhibit various stages of viral life cycle [126]
25	Moringa oleifera Lam./Moringaceae	Drumstick tree	Quercetin, Linolenic acid [76]	Food [127]	Human immunodeficiency virus type-1 [128]	Methanolic, ethyl ether and aqueous extract of leaves/Saponins, tannins, flavonoids [128]	Inhibits viral replication [128]
26	Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. Ex D. Don/Myricaceae	Kaphal, Bayberry	Myricetin, gallic acid [54] [129]	Food [130]	SARS-CoV [54]	Myricetin [54]	Inhibits helicase protein [54]
27	Nigella sativa L./Ranunculaceae	Black Cumin, Kalonji	Thymoquinone, thymol [49] [131]	Spice [132]	H9N2 avian influenza virus [49]	Dried seeds/Thymoquinone [49]	Inhibit viral replication [49]
28	Ocimum sanctum L./Lamiaceae	Basil, Tulsi	Eugenol, linolenic acid [133]	Herbal tea [133]	Human immunodeficiency virus [57]	Aerial parts methanolic extract/Flavonoids [57]	Inhibit protease enzyme [57]
29	Olea europaea L./Oleaceae	Olive	Oleuropein [47]	Edible oil [134]	Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus [47]	Ethanolic leaf extract/Oleuropein [47]	Direct inactivation, interacts with viral envelope [47]
30	Phaseolus vulgaris L./Fabaceae	Bean, Rajma	Phaseolin [135]	Food [135]	Human immunodeficiency virus type-1 [58]	Crude bean extract/Homodimeric lectin [58]	Inhibits HIV reverse transcriptase and alpha-glucosidase [58]
31	Phyllanthus emblica L./Phyllanthaceae	Amla, Indian Gooseberry	Phyllantidine, phyllantine [136]	Food [137]	Human immunodeficiency virus [138]	Methanolic fruit extract [138]	Inhibits HIV reverse transcriptase [138]
32	Punica granatum L./Lythraceae	Pomegranate	Polyphenols, ursolic acid [139] [140]	Food [139]	Influenza A virus [141]	Ethanolic peel extract [141]	Inhibits viral replication [141]
33	Solanum nigrum L./Solanaceae	Black Nightshade, Makoi	Solanine, solamargine [142]	Food [142]	Hepatitis C virus [65]	Chloroform and methanol seed extract [65]	Inhibits NS3 protease [65]
34	Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels/Myrtaceae	Jaman, Jambolan	Ellagic acid, gallic acid [143]	Food [143]	Avian influenza virus (H5N1) [53]	Aqueous leaf extract, aqueous bark extract [53]	Interfere with viral envelop or mask viral structures which are necessary for adsorption or entry into host cells [53]
35	Terminalia chebula Retz./Combretaceae	Black myrobalan	Chebulagic acid, Chebulinic acid [144]	Food [145]	Respiratory syncytial virus [69]	Chebulagic acid [69]	Anti-inflammation, suppression of iNOS, COX-2 and PGE2 expressions and suppression of IKK-NF-KB and MAPK signaling pathway [69]
36	Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague ex Turrill/Apiaceae	Ajwain, Bishop's weed	Thymol, carvacrol [146]	Spice [147]	Hepatitis C virus [64]	Methanolic fruit extract [64]	Inhibits viral protease enzymes [64]
37	Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal./ Solanaceae	Ashwagandha	Withaferin A [148]	Nutraceutical [149]	Influenza virus (H1N1) [148]	Withaferin A [148]	Inhibit neuraminidase, the key enzyme in the life cycle of influenza virus [148]
38	Zingiber officinale Roscoe./Zingiberaceae	Ginger	6-Gingerol, 6-shogaol [150]	Nutraceutical [151], Spice [152]	Human respiratory syncytial virus [150]	Hot aqueous rhizome extract/Gingerols [150]	Inhibits viral attachment and penetration [150]